THE  AMERICAN  RACE: 


A  LINGUISTIC  CLASSIFICATION  AND  ETHNOGRAPHIC 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  NATIVE  TRIBES  OF 

NORTH  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 


BY 

DANIEL  G.  BRINTON,  A.M.,  M.D., 

Professor  of  American  Archaeology  and  Linguistics  in  the  University  .of 
Pennsylvania,  and  of  General  Ethnology  at  the  Academy  of  Natural 
Sciences,  Philadelphia ;  Vice-President  of  the  Congres  International 
des  Americanistes  ;  Medallist  of  the  Societe  AmericaJBe_de  France  ; 
President  of  the  Numismatic  and  Antiquarian  Society  of  Philadelphia, 
and  of  the  University  Archaeological  Association  of  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania;  Member  of  the  Anthropological  Societies  of  Berlin  and 
Vienna,  and  of  the  Ethnographical  Societies  of  Paris  and  Florence ; 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  Antiquaries,  Copenhagen,  and  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  History,  Madrid ;  of  the  American  Philosophical  Society, 
the  American  Antiquarian  Society,  etc. 


PHILADELPHIA 

DAVID  McKAY,  PUBLISHER 

1022  MARKET  STREET. 
1901 


COPYRIGHT. 
DANIEL  G.  BRINTON. 

1891. 


f  5? 

IT^ 

o.  2. 


TO  THE 

CONGRES  INTERNATIONAL  DES  AMERICANISTES, 

AN  ASSOCIATION 

WHOSE  BROAD  SYMPATHIES  AND  ENLIGHTENED  SPIRIT 
ILLUSTRATE  THE  NOBLEST  ASPECTS  OF  SCIENCE, 

AND  WHOSE  EXCELLENT  WORK  IN 

AMERICAN  ETHNOGRAPHY,  ARCHAEOLOGY,  AND  EARLY  HISTORY 

HAS  CREATED  A  DEEP  AND  ABIDING  INTEREST  IN 

THESE  STUDIES  THROUGHOUT  EUROPE, 

THIS  WORK 

IS  RESPECTFULLY  DEDICATED 
BY  THE 

AUTHOR. 


PREFACE. 


QO  far  as  I  know,  this  is  the  first  attempt  at  a  sys- 

.  ^     tematic  classification  of  the  whole  American  race 

J  on    the   basis   of   language.     I    do   not  overlook  Dr. 

4  Latham's   meritorious   effort   nearly  forty  years  ago ; 

but  the  deficiency   of   material  at  that  time  obliged 

£  him  to  depart  from  the  linguistic  scheme  and  accept 

r  other  guides. 

While  not  depreciating  the  value  of  physical  data, 
.  of  culture  and  traditional  history,  I  have  constantly 
i  placed  these  subordinate  to  relationship  as  indicated 
\  by    grammar    and     lexicography.     There    are    weli- 
l    known  examples  in  the  ethnography  of  other  races, 
^   where  reliance  on  language  alone  would  lead  the  in- 
vestigator  astray ;    but  all  serious  students   of    the 
native  American   tribes  are   united    in    the    opinion 
that  with  them  no  other  clue  can  compare  to  it  in 
general   results.     Consequently  the  Bureau   of    Eth- 
nology of  the  United  States  and  the  similar  depart- 
ments in  the   governments   of    Canada  and   Mexico    , 
have  agreed  in  adopting  officially  the  linguistic  classi« 
fication   for  the  aboriginal    population  within    their/ 
several  territories. 


X  PREFACE.  , 

Wherever  the  material  permitted  it,  I  have  ranked 
the  grammatic  structure  of  a  language  superior  to  its 
lexical  elements  in  deciding  upon  relationship.  In 
this  I  follow  the  precepts  and  examples  of  students  of 
the  Aryan  and  Semitic  stocks  ;  although  their  meth- 
ods have  been  rejected  by  some  who  have  written  on 
American  tongues.  As  for  myself,  I  am  abidingly 
convinced  that  the  morphology  of  any  language 
whatever  is  its  most  permanent  and  characteristic 
feature. 

It  has  been  my  effort  to  pay  especial  attention  to 
those  portions  of  the  continent  whose  ethnography 
remains  obscure.  The  publications  of  official  bodies, 
as  well  as  those  of  numerous  societies  and  individ- 
uals, have  cleared  up  most  of  the  difficulties  in  that 
portion  of  the  continent  north  of  Mexico ;  hence  it  is 
to  the  remainder  that  I  have  given  greater  space. 
The  subject,  however,  is  so  vast,  and  the  material  so 
abundant,  that  I  fear  the  reader  may  be  disappointed 
by  the  brevity  of  the  descriptions  I  have  allowed  to 
the  several  stocks. 

The  outlines  of  the  classification  and  the  general 
arrangement  of  the  material  are  those  which  for 
several  years  I  have  adopted  in  my  lecture  courses 
before  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,  Philadel- 
phia. In  fact,  this  volume  may  properly  be  re- 
garded as  an  expansion  of  the  ninth  lecture — that 
on  "  The  American  Race," — in  my  lectures  on  gen- 


PREFACE.  XI 

eral  ethnography,  published  last  year  under  the  title 
"  Races  and  Peoples." 

In  defining  the  locations  of  the  various  tribes,  I 
have  encountered  many  difficulties  from  their  fre- 
quent removals.  As  a  rule  I  have  assigned  a  tribe 
the  location  where  it  was  first  encountered  and  iden- 
tified by  the  white  explorers  ;  though  sometimes  I 
have  preferred  some  later  location  where  its  activity 
was  longest  known. 

The  great  variety  of  the  orthography  of  tribal 
names  has  led  me  to  follow  the  rule  of  selecting  that 
which  is  locally  the  most  usual.  This  variety  has 
been  not  a  little  increased  by  what  seems  to  me  the 
pedantry  of  many  learned  writers,  who  insist  on  spell- 
ing every  native  name  they  mention  according  to 
some  phonetic  system  of  their  own  devising — thus 
adding  to  the  already  lamentable  orthographic  con- 
fusion. 

I  have  not  thought  it  advisable  to  adopt  termi- 
nations to  designate  stocks  as  distinguished  from 
tribes.  The  Bureau  of  Ethnology  has  adopted  for 
stocks  the  termination  an,  as  "  Algonkian,"  "  Siou- 
ian."  This  frequently  gives  terms  of  strange  ap- 
pearance, and  is  open  to  some  other  objections.  It 
would  be  desirable  to  have  this  question  of  termi- 
nology decided  by  the  International  Congress  of 
Americanists,  on  some  plan  applicable  to  French, 
German  and  Spanish,  as  well  as  English,  rather 


Xll  PREFACE. 

than  to  have  it  left  to  a  local  body  or  a  single 
authority. 

My  thanks  are  due  Mr.  H.  W.  Henshaw,  editor  of 
the  American  Anthropologist  t  for  revising  the  list  of 
North  Pacific  Coast  Stocks,  and  various  suggestions. 

I  regret  that  I  have  not  been  able  to  avail  myself 
of  the  unpublished  material  in  the  Bureau  of  Eth- 
nology at  Washington  ;  but  access  to  this  was  denied 
me  except  under  the  condition  that  I  should  not  use 
in  any  published  work  the  information  thus  obtained ; 
a  proviso  scarcely  so  liberal  as  I  had  expected. 

Philadelphia,  February,  1891. 


CONTENTS. 


Preface xi 

Table  of  Contents ziii 

INTRODUCTORY. 
RACIAI,  HISTORY  AND  CHARACTERISTICS. 

Theories  of  the  Origin  of  the  American  Race.  The  "ten  lost 
tribes."  The  "lost  Atlantis."  Fu-sang.  Supposed  Asiatic 
immigrations.  When  man  first  appeared  in  America.  The 
Glacial  Epoch.  The  Post-glacial  Era.  Oldest  relics  of  man 
in  America  ;  in  California  ;  in  Nicaragua  ;  in  the  Columbian 
gravel ;  in  the  modified  -drift ;  in  the  loess  and  moraines. 
Man  did  not  originate  in  America.  Physical  geography  of 
the  early  Quaternary  Period.  Land  connection  of  North 
America  with  Europe.  Opinions  of  geologists.  Remote- 
ness of  the  Glacial  Epoch.  Scheme  of  the  Age  of  Man  in 
America.  "Area  of  characterization"  of  the  American 
Race.  Permanence  of  racial  traits.  Cranial  forms.  Ceph- 
alic index.  Os  Incae.  Cranial  capacity.  Color.  Hair. 
Stature.  Uniformity  of  racial  type.  Mental  endowments. 
Native  culture.  Gentile  organization.  Marriage.  Position 
of  woman.  Agriculture.  Domestic  animals.  Useful  arts. 
Religions.  Myths.  Symbolism.  Opinions  about  death. 
Medicine  men.  Languages.  Linguistic  stocks.  General 
classification 17-58 

NORTH   AMERICAN  TRIBES. 

I.  THE  NORTH  ATLANTIC  GROUP. 

1.  The  Eskimos  or  Innuit,  and  Aleutians 59-67 

2.  The  Beothuks 67-68 

3.  The  Athabascans  or  Tinne* 68-74 

(xiii) 


XIV  CONTENTS. 


4.  The  Algonkins 74-&> 

5.  The  Iroquois 81-85 

6.  The  Chahta-Muskokis 85-89 

7.  The   Catawbas,    Yuchis,   Timucuas,    Natchez,    Cheti- 

machas,  Tonicas,   Adaize,  Atakapas,   Carankaways, 

Tonka  ways,  Coahuiltecans,  Maratins 89-94 

8.  The  Pawnees  or  Caddoes 95~97 

9.  The  Dakotas  or  Sioux 98-101 

10.  The  Kioways 101-102 


II.  THE  NORTH  PACIFIC  GROUP. 

1.  The  Northwest   Coast  and  Californian  Tribes  :  The 

Tlinkit  or  Kolosch  ;  the  Haidahs  ;  the  Salish  ;  the 
Sahaptins  or  Nez  Perec's,  etc 103-109 

2.  The  Yumas 109-1 13 

3.  The  Pueblo  Tribes 113-117 

III.  THE   CENTRAL  GROUP. 

1.  The  Uto-Aztecan  Stock 118 

a.  The  Ute  or  Shoshonian  Branch 120-123 

b.  The  Sonoran  Branch 123-127 

c.  The  Nahuatl  Branch 128-134 

2.  The  Otomis 135-136 

3.  The  Tarascos 136-138 

4.  The  Totonacos 139-140 

5.  The  Zapotecs  and  Mixtecs 140-142 

6.  The  Zoques  and  Mixes 143-144 

7.  The  Chinantecs 144 

8.  The  Chapanecs  and  Mangues 145 

9.  Chontals  and  Popolocas,  Tequistlatecas  and  Matagal- 

pas  146-153 

10.  The  Mayas I53-i$9 

11.  The   Huaves,   Subtiabas,   Lencas,    Xincas,   Xicaques, 

"Caribs,"  Musquitos,  Ulvas,  Ramas,   Payas,  Gua- 

tusos 159-164 


CONTENTS.  XV 

SOUTH   AMERICAN  TRIBES. 

PACK 

General  Remarks 165-171 

I.  THE  SOUTH  PACIFIC  GROUP. 

I.   THE  COLUMBIAN  REGION.  172 

1.  Tribes  of  the  Isthmus  and  adjacent  coast  :  The  Cunas, 

Changuinas,  Chocos,  Caracas,  Timotes  and  others. .   173-181 

2.  The  Chibchas 181-180 

3.  The  Paniquitas  and  Paezes 189-192 

4.  South  Columbian  Tribes  :    Natives  of  Cauca  ;   Coco- 

uucos,  Barbacoas,  Andaquis,  Mocoas,  Cariaris 192-201 

2.    THE  PERUVIAN  REGION.  2O2 

1.  The  Kechuas 203-216 

2.  The  Aymaras 216-221 

3.  The  Puquinas 221-224 

4.  The  Yuncas 224-226 

5.  The  Atacamenos  and  Changes 226-228 

II.   THE  SOUTH  ATLANTIC  GROUP. 

I.    THE  AMAZONIAN   REGION.  229 

1.  The  Tupis 229-236 

2.  The  Tapuyas 236-241 

3.  The  Arawaks 241-250 

4.  The  Caribs 251-258 

5.  The  Cariris 258-259 

6.  The  Coroados,  Carajas  and  others 259-262 

7.  The  Orinoco  Basin  ;  Carib  sub-stock  ;  Salivas  ;  Arawak 

sub-stock  ;  Otomacos  ;  Guamas  ;  Guaybas  ;  Guarau- 

nos  ;  Betoyas  ;  Churoyas  ;  Piaroas  ;   Puinavis 262-278 

8.  The   Upper   Amazonian    Basin.      List  of   Languages : 

The  Zaparos ;  the  Jivaros  ;  the  May n  as  ;  the 
Yameos  or  Lamas  ;  the  Ardas  ;  the  Pebas ;  the 
Yaguas ;  the  Itucales ;  the  Ticunas  ;  the  Hibitos ; 
the  Panos  ;  the  Pammarys  ;  the  Arauas  ;  the  Hypur- 
inas 278-295 


XVI  CONTENTS. 

VAGK 

9.  The  Bolivian  Highlands.     The  Chiquitos  ;  the  Yuru-  " 
cares  ;  the  Mosetenas  ;  the  Tacanas  ;  the  Samucus  ; 
the  Canichanas  ;  the  Cayubabas  ;  the  Apolistas  ;  the 
Otuquis  ;  the  Ites,  and  others 295-306 

2.   THE  PAMPEAN   REGION.  306 

1.  The  Gran  Chaco  and  its  stocks.    The  Guaycurus,  Lules, 

Matacos  and   Payaguas.     The  Lenguas,  Charruas, 
Guatos,  Calchaquis 307-321 

2.  The  Pampeans  and  Araucanians.     The  Chonos 321-327 

3.  The  Patagonians  and  Fuegians.    The  Tzonecas.     The 

Yahgans,  Onas  and  Alikulufs 327~332 

Linguistic  Appendix 333 

Vocabularies 335 

Additions  and  Corrections 365 

Index  of  Authors 369 

Index  of  Subjects 374 


THE 

AMERICAN  RACE. 


INTRODUCTORY. 


RACIAL   HISTORY   AND   CHARACTERISTICS. 

THE  differentiation  of  the  species  Man  into  various 
races,  with  permanent  traits  and  inhabiting  defi- 
nite areas,  took  place  early  in  the  present  geologic 
epoch.  Of  these  races  there  are  four  which  are  well- 
marked,  each  developed  in  one  of  the  continental  areas 
as  they  existed  at  the  time  referred  to.  They  are  the 
Eurafrican  or  white,  the  Austafrican  or  black,  the 
Asian  or  yellow,  and  the  American  or  red  race.  The 
color-names  given  them  are  merely  approximations, 
and  are  retained  for  the  sake  of  convenience,  and  as 
expressing  a  general  and  obvious  characteristic.* 

The  American  race  was  that  which  was  found  oc- 
cupying the  .whole  of  the  New  World  when  it  first 

*  For  the  full  development  of  these  principles,  I  would  refer  the 
reader  to  my  work  entitled  Races  and  Peoples ;  Lectures  on  the 
Science  of  Ethnography  (David  McKay,  Philadelphia.) 

2  (I/)     ' 


18  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

became  revealed  to  Europeans.  Its  members  are 
popularly  known  as  "  Indians,"  or  "  American  In- 
dians," because  Columbus  thought  that  the  western 
islands  which  he  discovered  were  part  of  India  ;  and 
his  error  has  been  perpetuated  in  the  usually  received 
appellation  of  its  inhabitants.  To  the  ethnographer, 
however,  they  are  the  only  "  Americans,"  and  their 
race  is  the  "  American  Race." 

When  investigation  proved  that  the  continent  was 
not  a  part  of  Asia,  but  a  vast  independent  land-area 
surrounded  by  wide  oceans,  the  learned  began  to  puz- 
zle themselves  with  the  problem  of  the  origin  of  its 
inhabitants.  The  Hebrew  myths  of  the  creation  of 
man  and  of  a  universal  deluge  in  which  the  whole 
species  perished  except  a  few  in  Western  Asia,  for  a 
long  time  controlled  the  direction  of  such  specula- 
tions. The  wildest  as  well  as  the  most  diverse  hy- 
potheses were  brought  forward  and  defended  with 
great  display  of  erudition.  One  of  the  most  curious 
was  that  which  advanced  the  notion  that  the  Amer- 
icans were  the  descendants  of  the  ten  "  lost  tribes  of 
Israel."  No  one,  at  present,  would  acknowledge 
himself  a  believer  in  this  theory ;  but  it  has  not 
proved  useless,  as  we  owe  to  it  the  publication  of 
several  most  valuable  works.* 

Another  equally  vain  dream  was  that  of  "  the  lost 
Atlantis,"  a  great  island  or  land-connection  which 
was  imagined  to  have  existed  within  recent  times  be- 
tween Northern  Africa  and  South  America.  A  re- 
miniscence of  it  was  supposed  to  have  survived  in  a 

*  Notably,  Adair's  History  of  the  North  American  Indians ;  and 
Lord  Kingsbofough's  ittagnificeut  Mexican  Antiquities* 


THE    FABULOUS   ATLANTIS.  19 

story  of  the  Egyptian  priests  preserved  by  Plato,  that 
beyond  the  Pillars  of  Hercules  was  a  great  island 
which  had  since  sunk  in  the  sea.  The  account  may 
have  referred  to  the  Canary  Islands,  but  certainly  not 
to  any  land-bridge  across  the  Atlantic  to  the  Ameri- 
can Continent.  Such  did  exist,  indeed,  but  far  back 
in  the  Eocene  period  of  the  Tertiary,  long  before  man 
appeared  on  the  scene.  The  wide  difference  between 
the  existing  flora  and  fauna  of  Africa  and  South 
America  proves  that  there  has  been  no  connection  in 
the  lifetime  of  the  present  species.* 

Scarcely  less  incredible  are  the  theories  which  still 
have  some  distinguished  advocates,  that  the  conti- 
nent was  peopled  from  Polynesia,  or  directly  from 
Japan  or  China.  Several  laborious  works  have  been 
compiled  with  reference  to  "  Fu  Sang,"  a  land  re- 
ferred to  as  east  of  China,  and  identified  by  these 
writers  with  Mexico.  A  distinguished  ethnologist 
has  recently  published  a  map  showing  the  courses  by 
which  he  supposes  the  Japanese  arrived  in  America,  f 

It  is  not  impossible  that  in  recent  centuries  some 
junks  may  have  drifted  on  the  Northwest  coast.  But 
their  crews  would  undoubtedly  have  been  promptly 
slaughtered ;  and  it  is  only  in  later  ages  that  the 
Chinese  or  Japanese  constructed  such  junks.  The 
theory,  therefore,  offers  no  solution  to  the  problem. 

*  For  a  complete  refutation  of  this  venerable  hypothesis  see  an 
article  "  L'Atlantide."  by  Charles  Ploix,  in  the  Revue  d1  Anthro- 
pologic,  1887,  p.  291  ;  and  de  Mortillet,  Le  Prbhistorique  Antiquiti 
de  r Homme,  p.  124. 

t  De  Quatrefages,  Histoire  Generate  des  Races  Ifumaines,  p.  558. 
He  adds  the  wholly  incorrect  statement  that  many  Japanese  words 
are  found  in  American  languages. 


20  THE  AMERICAN     RACE. 

Still  less  does  that  in  reference  to  the  Polynesians. 
They  had  no  such  craft  as  junks,  and  though  bold 
navigators,  were  wholly  unprepared  to  survive  so 
long  a  voyage  as  from  the  nearest  of  the  islands  of 
Oceanica  to  the  coast  of  America.  Moreover,  we 
have  satisfactory  proof  that  the  eastern  islands  of 
Polynesia  were  peopled  from  the  western  islands  at  a 
recent  date,  that  is,  within  two  thousand  years. 

Probably  the  favorite  theory  at  the  present  day  is 
that  the  first  inhabitants  of  the  New  World  came 
from  northeastern  Asia,  either  by  the  Aleutian  islands 
or  across  Behring  Strait.  Concerning  the  Aleutian 
islands  we  know  by  the  evidence  of  language  and 
archaeology  that  they  were  first  peopled  from  America, 
and  not  from  Asia.  Moreover,  they  are  separated  one 
from  the  other  in  places  by  hundreds  of  miles  of  a 
peculiarly  stormy  and  dangerous  sea.* 

It  is  otherwise  with  Behring  Straits.  From  East 
Cape  in  Siberia  one  can  see  the  American  shore,  and 
when  first  explored  the  tribes  on  each  side  were  in 
frequent  communication.  No  doubt  this  had  been 
going  on  for  a  long  time,  and  thus  they  had  influ- 
enced each  other  in  blood  and  culture.  But  so  long  as 
we  have  any  knowledge  of  the  movings  at  this  point, 
they  have  been  from  America  into  Asia,  the  Eskimos 
pushing  their  settlements  along  the  Asian  coast.  It 
will  be  replied  that  we  should  look  to  a  period  an- 


*  The  nearest  of  the  Aleutian  islands  to  Kamschatka  is  253  miles 
distant.  The  explorer  Behring  found  the  western  Aleutians,  those 
nearest  the  Asian  shore,  uninhabited.  See  W.  H.  Ball,  "  Origin  of 
the  Innuit,"  pp.  96,  97,  in  Contributions  to  North  American  Eth- 
nology, Vol.  I.  (Washington,  1877). 


WHEN    MAN   CAME.  21 

terior  to  the  Eskimos.  Any  migration  at  that  remote 
epoch  is  refuted  by  other  considerations.  We  know 
that  Siberia  was  not  peopled  till  late  in  the  Neolithic 
times,  and  what  is  more,  that  the  vicinity  of  the 
strait  and  the  whole  coast  of  Alaska  were,  till  a  very 
modern  geologic  period,  covered  by  enormous  glaciers 
which  would  have  prevented  any  communication  be- 
tween the  two  continents.*  These  considerations  re- 
duce any  possible  migrations  at  this  point  to  such  as 
may  have  taken  place  long  after  America,  both  North 
and  South,  possessed  a  wide-spread  population. 

The  question  which  should  be  posed  as  preliminary 
to  all  such  speculations  is,  When  did  man  first  appear 
on  this  isolated  continent  ? 

To  answer  this  we  must  study  its  later  geological 
history,  the  events  which  have  occurred  since  the 
close  of  the  Tertiary,  that  is,  during  the  Quaternary 
age. 

In  North  and  also  in  South  America  that  age  was 
characterized  by  one  notable  event,  which  impressed 
its  presence  by  lasting  memorials  on  the  surface  of 
the  continent.  This  was  the  formation  of  a  series 
of  enormous  glaciers,  covering  the  soil  of  nearly  half 
the  temperate  zones  with  a  mass  of  ice  thousands 
of  feet  in  thickness.  The  period  of  its  presence  is 
called  the  Great  Ice  Age  or  the  Glacial  Epoch.  Be- 
yond the  immediate  limits  of  the  ice  it  may  not  have 
been  a  season  of  extreme  cold,  for  glaciers  form  more 
rapidly  when  the  temperature  is  not  much  below  the 

*  The  evidences  of  a  vast  ice-sheet  once  covering  the  whole  of 
East  Cape  are  plainly  visible.  See  Dr.  I.  C.  Rosse,  Medical  and 
Anthropological  Notes  on  Alaska,  p.  29.  (Washington,  1883.) 


22  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

freezing  point.  Nor  was  it  continuous.  The  ice 
sheet  receded  once,  if  not  twice,  causing  an  "  inter- 
glacial"  epoch,  when  the  climate  was  comparatively 
mild.  After  this  interim  it  seems  to  have  advanced 
again  with  renewed  might,  and  to  have  extended  its 
crystalline  walls  down  to  about  the  fortieth  parallel 
of  latitude,  touching  the  Atlantic  near  Boston  and 
New  York  harbors,  and  stretching  nearly  across  the 
continent  in  an  irregular  line,  generally  a  little  north 
of  the  Ohio  and  a  little  south  of  the  Missouri  rivers. 
Enormous  ice  masses  covered  the  Pacific  Slope  as  far 
south  as  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  river,  and  ex- 
tended over  1 200  miles  along  the  coast,  submerging 
the  whole  of  Queen  Charlotte  and  Vancouver  islands 
and  the  neighboring  coast  of  British  Columbia,  which 
at  that  time  were  depressed  about  two  hundred  feet 
below  the  present  level.  The  ice  also  covered  for 
four  hundred  miles  or  more  the  plateau  or  Great 
Basin  between  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Coast 
Range,  rising  in  some  places  in  a  solid  mass  five  or 
six  thousand  feet  above  the  soil.* 

The  melting  of  the  second  glacial  inroad  began  at 
the  east,  and  on  the  Pacific  coast  has  not  yet  ceased. 
Its  margin  across  the  continent  is  still  distinctly  de- 
fined by  a  long  line  of  debris  piled  up  in  "  moraines," 
and  by  a  fringe  of  gravel  and  sand  called  the  "  over- 
wash,"  carried  from  these  by  the  mighty  floods  which 
accompanied  the  great  thaw.  This  period  of  melting 

*  Joseph  Prestwich,  Geology,  Vol.  II,  p.  465,  (Oxford,  1888).  J. 
D.  Dana,  Text  Book  of  Geology,  pp.  355-359  (New  York,  1883). 
Geo.  M.  Dawson,  in  The  American  Geologist,  1890,  p.  153.  The 
last  mentioned  gives  an  excellent  epitome  of  the  history  of  the 
great  Pacific  glacier. 


CHANGES   IN    LEVEL.  23 

is  the  "  Post-glacial  Era."  It  was  accompanied  by 
extensive  changes  in  the  land-levels  and  in  tempera- 
ture. 

In  the  glacial  and  early  post-glacial  periods,  the 
northern  regions  of  the  continent  and  the  bottom  of 
the  Northern  Atlantic  were  considerably  above  their 
present  levels ;  but  in  the  late  post-glacial  or  "  Cham- 
plain  "  period  the  land  had  sunk  so  much  that  at 
Lake  Champlain  it  was  five  hundred  feet  lower  than 
now,  and  at  New  York  Harbor  ten  feet  lower.  The 
St.  Lawrence  river  was  then  an  arm  of  the  sea,  Lake 
Champlain  was  a  deep  bay,  and  the  mouth  of  the 
Delaware  river  was  where  the  city  of  Trenton  now 
stands,  the  river  itself  being  a  wide  inlet.* 

The  climate,  which  in  the  early  post-glacial  period 
had  been  so  cold  that  the  reindeer  enjoyed  an  agree- 
able home  as  far  south  as  Kentucky,  changed  to  such 
mildness  that  two  species  of  elephants,  the  giant  sloth 
and  the  peccary,  found  congenial  pasturage  in  the 
Upper  Ohio  and  Delaware  Valleys. f 

The  interest  which  this  piece  of  geologic  history 
has  for  us  in  this  connection  is  the  presence  of  man 
in  America  during  all  the  time  that  these  tremendous 
events  were  taking  place.  We  know  he  was  there, 
from  the  evidence  he  has  left  behind  him  in  the  va- 
rious strata  and  deposits  attributable  to  the  different 
agencies  I  have  described.  How  far  back  his  most 
ancient  relics  carry  us,  is  not  quite  clear.  By  some, 
the  stone  implements  from  Table  Mountain,  Califor- 

*  James  D.  Dana,  loc.  cit. ,  p.  359. 

t  James  D.  Dana,  "Reindeers  in  Southern  New  England,"  in 
Aimrican  Journal  of  Science,  1875,  p.  353. 


24  THE   AMERICAN  RACE. 

nia,  and  a  skull  found  in  the  auriferous  gravel  in 
Calaveras  county,  California,  are  claimed  to  antedate 
any  relics  east  of  the  mountains.  These  stone  uten- 
sils are,  however,  too  perfect,  they  speak  for  a  too 
specialized  condition  of  the  arts,  to  be  attributable  to  a 
primitive  condition  of  man ;  and  as  for  the  Calaveras 
skull,  the  record  of  its  discovery  is  too  unsatisfactory. 
Furthermore,  in  a  volcanic  country  such  as  the  Pa- 
cific coast,  phenomena  of  elevation  and  subsidence 
occur  with  rapidity,  and  do  not  offer  the  same  evi- 
dence of  antiquity  as  in  more  stable  lands. 

This  is  an  important  point,  and  applies  to  a  series 
of  archaeological  discoveries  which  have  been  an- 
nounced from  time  to  time  from  the  Pacific  coast. 
Thus,  in  Nicaragua,  human  foot-prints  have  been 
found  in  compact  tufa  at  a  depth  of  twenty-one  feet 
beneath  the  surface  soil,  and  overlaid  by  repeated 
later  volcanic  deposits.  But  a  careful  examination  of 
all  their  surroundings,  especially  of  the  organic  re- 
mains at  a  yet  greater  depth,  leads  inevitably  to  the 
conclusion  that  these  foot-prints  cannot  be  ascribed 
to  any  very  remote  antiquity.*  The  singular  changes 
in  the  Pacific  seaboard  are  again  illustrated  along  the 
coast  of  Ecuador  and  Peru.  For  some  sixty  miles 
north  and  south  near  the  mouth  of  the  Esmeraldas 
river  there  is  a  deposit  of  marine  clay  six  or  eight 
feet  thick  underlying  the  surface  soil  in  a  continuous 
stratum.  Under  this  again  is  a  horizon  of  sand  and 
loam  containing  rude  stone  implements,  and  what  is 

*  See  "  On  an  Ancient  Human  Footprint  from  Nicaragua,"  by  D, 
G.  Brinton,  in  Proceedings  of  the  American  Philosophical  Society 
1887,  p.  437. 


EARLIEST   RELICS   OF   MAN.  2$ 

significant,  fragments  of  rough  pottery  and  gold  or- 
naments.* This  shows  conclusively  that  an  extensive 
and  prolonged  subsidence  took  place  in  that  locality 
not  only  after  man  reached  there,  but  after  he  had 
developed  the  important  art  of  the  manufacture  of 
clay  vessels.  This  was  certainly  not  at  the  beginning 
of  his  appearance  on  the  scene  ;  and  the  theory  of  any 
vast  antiquity  for  such  relics  is  not  tenable. 

The  lowest,  that  is,  the  oldest,  deposit  on  the  east- 
ern coast  in  which  any  relics  of  human  industry  are 
claimed  to  have  been  found,  is  that  known  as  the 
"  Columbian  gravel."  This  is  considered  by  geolo- 
gists to  have  been  formed  in  the  height  of  the  first 
glacial  period.  From  its  undisturbed  layers  have 
been  exhumed  stones  bearing  the  marks  of  rough 
shaping,  so  as  to  serve  the  purpose  of  rude  primitive 
weapons,  f 

During  the  first  or  main  Interglacial  Period  was 
deposited  the  "  modified  drift."  In  a  terrace  of  this 
material  on  the  Mississippi,  near  Little  Falls,  Minne- 
sota, Miss  Babbitt  found  numerous  quartz  chips 
regarded  by  competent  archaeologists  as  artificial 
products.  ^  They  represent  the  refuse  of  an  early 
workshop  near  the  quartz  veins  in  that  vicinity,  and 

*  J.  S.  Wilson,  in  Memoirs  of  the  Anthropological  Society  of  Lon- 
don, Vol.  III.,  p.  163. 

f  The  finders  have  been  Messrs.  H.  P.  Cresson  and  \V.  H. 
Holmes.  From  my  own  examination  of  them,  I  think  there  is 
room  for  doubt  as  to  the  artificial  origin  of  some  of  them.  Others 
are  clearly  due  to  design. 

\  Her  account  is  in  the  American  Naturalist,  1884,  p.  594,  and  a 
later  synopsis  in  Proceedings  of  the  American  Association  for  the 
Advancement  of  Science,  1889,  p.  333. 


26  THE   AMERICAN    RACE. 

were  cast  aside  by  the  pristine  implement-maker 
when  the  Minnesota  glacier  was  receding  for  the  last 
time,  but  still  lifted  its  icy  walls  five  or  ten  miles 
above  the  present  site  of  Little  Falls. 

The  extensive  beds  of  loess  which  cover  many 
thousand  square  miles  in  the  Central  United  States 
are  referred  to  the  second  Glacial  Epoch.  Professor 
Aughey  reports  the  finding  of  rudely  chipped  arrow- 
head in  this  loess  as  it  occurs  in  the  Missouri  Valley. 
They  lay  immediately  beneath  the  vertebra  of  an 
elephant,  an  animal,  I  need  scarcely  add,  long  since 
extinct.  Another  proof  of  man's  presence  about  that 
date  is  a  primitive  hearth  discovered  in  digging  a 
well  along  the  old  beach  of  Lake  Ontario.  Accord- 
ing to  that  competent  geologist,  Professor  Gilbert, 
this  dated  from  a  period  when  the  northern  shore  of 
that  body  of  water  was  the  sheer  wall  of  a  mighty 
glacier,  and  the  channel  of  the  Niagara  river  had  not 
yet  begun  to  be  furrowed  out  of  the  rock  by  the  re- 
ceding waters.*  Other  finds  which  must  be  referred 
to  about  this  epoch  are  those  by  McGee  of  a  chipped 
obsidian  implement  in  the  lacustrine  marls  of  western 
Nevada  ;  and  that  of  a  fragment  of  a  human  skull  in 
the  westernmost  extension  of  the  loess  in  Colorado,  f 

More  conclusive  than  these  are  the  repeated  discov- 
eries of  implements,  chipped  from  hard  stones,  in 
deposits  of  loess  and  gravels  in  Ohio  and  Indiana, 
which  deposits,  without  doubt,  represent  a  closing 
episode  of  the  last  Glacial  Epoch.  There  may  be 

*  G.  K.  Gilbert,  in   The  American  Anthropologist,  1889,  p.  173. 
t  W.  J.  McGee,    "Palaeolithic   Man   in  America,"   in   Popular 
Science  Monthly,  November  1888. 


GLACIAL   MEN.  2/ 

some  question  about  the  geologic  age  of  the  former 
finds,  but  about  these  there  is  none.  They  prove  be- 
yond cavil  that  during  the  closing  scenes  of  the  Qua- 
ternary in  North  America,  man,  tool-making,  fire- 
using  man,  was  present  and  active.*  This  decision 
is  not  only  confirmed,  but  greatly  extended,  by  the 
researches  of  Dr.  C.  C.  Abbott  and  others  in  the 
gravels  about  Trenton,  on  the  Delaware.  These 
were  laid  down  contemporaneously  with  the  terminal 
moraine  in  Ohio  and  Indiana,  from  which  the  palae- 
oliths  were  exhumed.  Abbott's  discoveries  include 
several  hundred  stone  implements  of  the  true  palaeo- 
lithic or  "  Chelleen  "  type,  and  some  fragments  of 
human  skeletons.!  They  reveal  to  us  not  only  the 
presence  of  man,  but  a  well  defined  stage  of  culture 
strictly  comparable  to  that  of  the  "  river  drift  "  men 
of  the  Thames  and  the  Somme  in  western  Europe, 
which  has  been  so  ably  described  by  De  Mortillet.  \ 

Such  discoveries  have  not  been  confined  to  the 
northern  portion  of  the  continent.  Barcena  reported 
the  relics  of  man  in  a  quarternary  rock  in  the  valley 
of  Mexico.  |  The  geologists  of  the  Argentine  Repub- 
lic describe  others  which  must  be  referred  to  a  very 
remote  age.  The  writers  who  have  given  the  most 

*  See  G.  Frederick  Wright,  The  Ice  Age  in  North  America. 

•(•  Dr.  Abbott  has  reported  his  discoveries  in  numerous  articles, 
and  especially  in  his  work  entitled  Primitive  Industry^  chapters 
32,  33- 

\  De  Mortillet,  Le  Prehistorique  Antiquite  de  rffomme,  p. 
132,  sq. 

||  Mariano  de  la  Barcena,  "  Fossil  Man  in  Mexico,"  in  the  Amer- 
ican Naturalist,  Aug.,  1885. 


28  THE    AMERICAN    RACE. 

information  about  them  are  Ameghino  and  Burmeis- 
ter.  They  found  bone  and  stone  implements  of  rude 
form  and  the  remains  of  hearths  associated  with 
bones  of  the  extinct  horse,  the  glyptodon,  and  other 
animals  now  unknown.  The  stratigraphic  relations 
of  the  finds  connected  them  with  the  deposits  of  the 
receding  Austral  glacier.* 

Such  facts  as  these  place  it  beyond  doubt  that  man 
lived  in  both  North  and  South  America  at  the  close 
of  the  Glacial  Age.  It  is  not  certain  that  this  close 
was  synchronous  in  both  the  northern  and  southern 
hemispheres,  nor  that  the  American  glacier  was  con- 
temporary with  the  Ice  Age  of  Europe.  The  able 
geologist,  Mr.  Croll,  is  of  opinion  that  if  there  was  a 
difference  in  time,  the  Ice  Age  of  America  was  pos- 
terior to  that  of  Europe.  In  any  case,  the  extreme 
antiquity  of  man  in  America  is  placed  beyond  cavil. 
He  was  here  long  before  either  northern  Asia  or  the 
Polynesian  islands  were  inhabited,  as  it  is  well 
known  they  were  first  populated  in  Neolithic  times. 

The  question  naturally  arises,  did  he  not  originate 
upon  this  continent  ?  The  answer  to  this  is  given  by 
Charles  Darwin  in  his  magistral  statement — "  Our 
progenitors  diverged  from  the  catarhine  stock  of  the 
anthropoids  ;  and  the  fact  that  they  belonged  to  this 
stock  clearly  shows  that  they  inhabited  the  Old 
World."  f  In  fact,  all  the  American  monkeys, 

*  Florentine  Ameghino,  La  Antiguedad  del  Hombre  en  el  Plata, 
passim.  (2  vols,  Buenos  Aires,  1880.) 

f  The  Descent  of  Man,  p.  155.  Dr.  Rudolph  Hoernes,  however, 
has  recently  argued  that  the  discovery  of  such  simian  forms  in 
the  American  tertiary  as  the  Anaptomorphus  homunculus,  Cope, 


ORIGIN   OF  AMERICANS.  29 

whether  living  or  fossil,  are  platyrhine,  have  thirty- 
four  teeth,  and  have  tails,  characteristics  which  show 
that  none  of  the  higher  anthropoids  lived  in  the  New 
World. 

We  are  obliged,  therefore,  to  look  for  the  original 
home  of  the  American  glacial  man  elsewhere  than 
in  America.  Some  interesting  geological  facts  throw 
an  unexpected  light  upon  our  investigations.  I  have 
already  remarked  that  in  the  various  recent  oscilla- 
tions of  the  earth's  crust,  there  occurred  about  the 
middle  and  later  Glacial  Epoch  an  uplift  of  the 
northern  part  of  the  continent  and  also  of  the  north- 
ern Atlantic  basin.  In  the  opinion  of  Professor 
James  Geikie  this  amounted  to  a  vertical  elevation  of 
three  thousand  feet  above  the  present  level,  and  re- 
sulted in  establishing  a  continuous  land  connection 
between  the  higher  latitudes  of  the  two  continents, 
which  remained  until  the  Post-glacial  period*  Dr. 
Habernicht  also  recognizes  this  condition  of  affairs 
and  places  it  during  the  "  old  stone  "  age  in  Europe.f 
which  corresponds  to  the  position  assigned  it  by 
McGee. 

Very  recently,  Professor   Spencer  has   summed  up 

renders  it  probable  that  the  anthropoid  ancestor  of  man  lived  in 
North  America.  Mittheil  dcr  Anthrop.  Gesell.  in  Wien,  1890,  \  71. 
The  Anaptomorphus  was  a  lemur  rather  than  a  monkey,  and  had 
a  dentition  very  human  in  character. 

*  Quoted  by  G.  F.  Wright  in  The  Ice  Age  in  America,  p.  583. 

f  H.  Habernicht,  Die  Recenten  Verdnderungen  der  Erdober- 
Jldche,  s.  27  (Gotha,  1882) .  He  further  shows  that  at  that  time  both 
northern  Russia  and  northern  Siberia  were  under  water,  which 
would  effectually  dispose  of  any  assumed  migration  by  way  of  the 
latter. 


3O  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

the  evidence  in  favor  of  the  elevation  of  the  northern 
portions  of  America  and  the  north  Atlantic,  about 
the  early  Pliocene  times,  and  considers  that  it  proves 
beyond  a  doubt  that  it  must  have  reached  from  2000 
to  3000  feet  above  the  present  level.* 

Further  testimony  to  the  existence  of  this  land 
bridge  is  offered  by  the  glacial  striae  on  the  rocks  of 
Shetland,  the  Faroe  Islands,  Iceland  and  .south  Green- 
land. These  are  in  such  directions  and  of  such  a 
character  that  Mr.  James  Croll,  a  high  authority, 
maintains  that  they  must  have  been  produced  by 
land  ice,  and  that  the  theory  of  a  land  connection  be- 
tween these  localities  "  can  alone  explain  all  the 
facts."f  A  comparison  of  the  flora  and  fauna  in 
the  higher  latitudes  of  the  two  continents  reveals 
marked  identities  which  require  some  such  theory  to 
explain  them.  Thus,  certain  species  of  land  snails 
occur  both  in  Labrador  and  Europe,  and  the  flora  of 
Greenland,  although  American  in  the  north,  is  dis- 
tinctly European  in  the  south.  $ 

Again,  in  certain  very  late  Pliocene  formations  in 
England,  known  as  the  Norwich  crag  and  the  red 
crag  of  Suffolk,  "  no  less  than  eighteen  species  of 
American  mollusca  occur,  only  seven  of  which  still 
live  on  the  Scandinavian  coast,  the  remainder  being 
confined  to  North  America."  In  consequence  of 

*  J.  W.  Spencer,  in  the  London  Geological  Magazine,  1890,  p. 
208,  sqq. 
f  James  Scroll,  Climate  and  Time,  p.  451. 

\  G.  F.  Wright,  The  Ice  Age  in  North  America,  pp.  582-3  (New 
York,  1890).  De  Mortillet,  Le  Prehistorique,  etc.,  pp.  186-7. 
H.  Rink,  in  Proc.  of  the  Arner.  Philos.  Society,  1885,  p.  293. 


THE   LAND-BRIDGE  TO   EUROPE.  31 

such  facts  the  most  careful  English  geologists  of  to- 
day hold  that  the  land  communication,  which  cer- 
tainly existed  between  Europe  and  North  America  in 
Eocene  times  by  way  of  Iceland  and  Greenland, 
which  was  then  a  part  of  the  American  continent, 
continued  to  exist  through  the  Miocene  and  Pliocene 
Epochs.  This  land  bridge  formed  a  barrier  of  sepa- 
ration between  the  Arctic  and  Atlantic  oceans,  so 
that  the  temperature  of  the  higher  latitudes  was  much 
milder  than  at  present.* 

The  evidence,  therefore,  is  cumulative  that  at  the 
close  of  the  last  Glacial  Epoch,  and  for  an  indeter- 
minate time  previous,  the  comparatively  shallow  bed 
of  the  North  Atlantic  was  above  water  ;  and  this  was 
about  the  time  that  we  find  men  in  the  same  stage  of 
culture  dwelling  on  both  its  shores.  - — 

The  attempt  has  often  been  made  by  geologists  to 
calculate  the  remoteness  in  time  of  the  close  of  the 
Ice  Age,  and  of  these  vestiges  of  human  occupation. 
The  chronometers  appealed  to  are  the  erosion  of 
river  valleys,  especially  of  the  gorge  of  Niagara,  the 
filling  of  lake  beds,  the  accumulation  of  modern 
detritus,  etc.  Professor  Frederick  Wright,  who  has 
studied  the  problem  of  the  Niagara  gorge  with  es- 
pecial care,  considers  that  a  minimum  period  of 
twelve  thousand  years  must  have  elapsed  since  its 


*  In  his  excellent  work,  The  Building  of  the  British  Isles,  (Lon- 
don, i8S8),  Mr.  A.  J.  Jukes-Browne  presents  in  detail  the  proofs  of 
these  statements,  and  gives  two  plates  (Nos.  XII.  and  XIII.), 
showing  the  outlines  of  this  laud  connection  at  the  period  referred 
to  (pp.  252,  257,  etc.). 


32  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

erosion  began.*  But  as  Professor  Gilbert  justly  re- 
marks, whatever  the  age  of  the  great  cataract  may 
be,  the  antiquity  of  man  in  America  is  far  greater, 
and  reaches  into  a  past  for  which  we  have  found  no 
time-measure.f 

The  same  may  be  said  for  Europe.  De  Quatre- 
fages  and  many  other  students  of  the  subject  consider 
that  the  evidence  is  sufficient  to  establish  the  pres- 
ence of  man  near  the  Atlantic  coast  in  the  Pliocene 
Epoch ;  and  excellent  English  geologists  have  claimed 
that  the  caves  in  the  valley  of  the  River  Clwyd,  in 
north  Wales,  whose  floors  contain  flint  implements, 
had  their  entrance  blocked  by  true  glacial  deposits, 
so  that  man  was  there  present  before  the  Great  Ice 
Age  began. 

From  this  brief  presentation  of  the  geologic  evi- 
dence, the  conclusion  seems  forced  upon  us  that  the 
ancestors  of  the  American  race  could  have  come  from 
no  other  quarter  than  western  Europe,  or  that  por- 
tion of  Eurafrica  which  in  my  lectures  on  general 
ethnography  I  have*  described  as  the  most  probable 
location  of  the  birth-place  of  the  species.:}: 

*  Wright,  The  Ice  Age,  p.  504. 

t  Gilbert,  Sixth  An.  Rep.  of  the  Com.  af  the  N.  Y.  State  Reser- 
vation, p.  84  (Albany,  1890). 

\  Races  and  Peoples,  chapter  III.    (David  McKay,  Philadelphia.) 


AGE   OF   MAN   IN    AMERICA. 
Scheme  of  the  Age  of  Man  in  America. 


33 


AGB. 

PERIOD. 

GEOLOGICAL 
CHARACTERS. 

HUMAN  RELICS. 

I 

i.  Pre-glacial.         j 

•  Auriferous    gravels    of 
California  (?). 
Lower    lake    beds     in 

Calaveras  skull  (?). 

I 

Great  Basin. 

1 

Attenuated  drift. 

P  a  1  a?  o  li  t  h  s    from 

Columbia  formation. 
Sinking     of      Atlantic 

Claymont,  Del. 

2.  First  glacial.       •{ 

Coast. 

Old     glacial     drift     in 

Mississippi  Valley. 

Brick  clays. 

f 

Modified  drift  of   Min- 

Flint   chips  and    rude 

nesota. 

implements. 

1 

Medial      Gravels      in 

3.  Inter-glacial.      -4 

Great  Basin. 

] 

Pampas  formation. 

Bone  and  stone  imple- 

Quaternary 

meius. 

( 

New  glacial   drift  and 

or 

till,  fiords. 

f 

Moraines  of  Ohio  Val- 

Palaeolithic     i  m  p  1  e  - 

Pleistocene. 

ley. 

ments  from  the  mo- 

4. Second  glacial.  •{ 

raines. 

Loess  of  central  United 

States. 

British    America     and 

N.  Atlantic  elevated. 

Trenton  gravels. 

Palaeolithic     i  m  p  1  e  - 

ments    from     Tren- 

ton. 

Completion    of    Great 

Brachycephalic 

Lakes. 

skulls     from     Tren- 

5. Post  glacial. 

ton. 

Elevation  of  North  At- 

Hearth      on      former 

lantic  subsiding. 

shore  of   L.  Ontario. 

Reindeer  in  Ohio  Val- 

Skulls     of     Pontimelo 

ley. 

and  Rio  Negro,  S.A. 

Climate  cold. 

'' 

Lacustrine  deposits. 

A  rgi  llite   imple- 

ments. 

Seaboard  deposits. 

Earliest     kitchen- 

middens. 

i.  Champlain 

Land     below    present 

Limonite      bones      in 

J 

level. 

Florida. 

or 

Climate  mild. 

Lagoa  Santa    bones  in 

Brazil. 

Fluvial. 

Elephant,       mastodon 

ohioticus,    megather- 

Recent. 

ium,  giant   bison, 

horse    (all    now    ex- 

tinct). 

River  deposits 

Quartz  and  jasper  im- 

2. Present 

plements. 

Formation     of      forest 

Pottery.      Later    shell 

or 

loam. 

heaps. 

Dhio  mounds. 

Alluvial. 

Relics    of   existing    or 

known  tribes. 

34  THE  AMERICAN   RACE. 

Many  difficulties  present  themselves  in  bringing 
these  periods  into  correspondence  with  the  seasons  of 
the  Quaternary  in  Europe  ;  but  after  a  careful  study 
of  both  continents,  Mr.  W.  J.  McGee  suggests  the 
following  synchronisms :  * 

North  America.  Western  Europe. 

Inter-glacial  period Epoque  chelleenne. 

Early  second  glacial  period Epoque  mousterienne. 

Middle  (mild)  second  glacial  period Epoque  solutreenne. 

Close  of  second  glacial  period  and  post- 
glacial    , Epoque  magdale'nienne. 

Champlain  period Kitchen-m  iddens   and 

epoque  Robenhausienne. 

Of  course  it  would  not  be  correct  to  suppose  that 
the  earliest  inhabitants  of  the  continent  presented  the 
physical  traits  which  mark  the  race  to-day.  Racial 
peculiarities  are  slowly  developed  in  certain  "  areas 
of  characterization,"  but  once  fixed  are  indelible. 
Can  we  discover  the  whereabouts  of  the  area  which 
impressed  upon  primitive  American  man — an  immi- 
grant, as  we  have  learned,  from  another  hemisphere — 
those  corporeal  changes  which  set  him  over  against  his 
fellows  as  an  independent  race  ? 

I  believe  that  it  was  in  the  north  temperate  zone. 
It  is  there  we  find  the  oldest  signs  of  man's  residence 
on  the  continent ;  it  is  and  was  geographically  the 
nearest  to  the  land-areas  of  the  Old  World ;  and  so 
far  as  we  can  trace  the  lines  of  the  most  ancient  mi- 
grations, they  diverged  from  that  region.  But  there 
^re  reasons  stronger  than  these.  The  American  In- 

*  "  Palaeolithic  Man  in  America  "  in  Popular  Science  Monthly \ 
Nov.,  1888. 


THE   "  AREA   OF   CHARACTERIZATION."  35 

dians  cannot  bear  the  heat  of  the  tropics  even  as  well 
as  the  European,  not  to  speak  of  the  African  race. 
They  perspire  little,  their  skin  becomes  hot,  and 
they  are  easily  prostrated  by  exertion  in  an  elevated 
temperature.  They  are  peculiarly  subject  to  diseases 
of  hot  climates,  as  hepatic  disorders,  showing  none 
of  the  immunity  of  the  African.*  Furthermore,  the 
finest  physical  specimens  of  the  race  are  found  in  the 
colder  regions  of  the  temperate  zones,  the  Pampas 
and  Patagonian  Indians  in  the  south,  the  Iroquois 
and  Algonkins  in  the  north ;  whereas,  in  the  tropics 
they  are  generally  undersized,  short-lived,  of  inferior 
muscular  force  and  with  slight  tolerance  cf  disease,  f 

These  facts,  taken  in  connection  with  the  geologic 
events  I  have  already  described,  would  lead  us  to 
place  the  "  area  of  characterization "  of  the  native 
American  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  between 
the  receding  wall  of  the  continental  ice  sheet  and  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico.  There  it  was  that  the  primitive 
glacial  man  underwent  those  changes  which  resulted  in 
the  formation  of  an  independent  race.  - 

We  have  evidence  that  this  change  took  place  at 
a  very  remote  epoch.  The  Swiss  anatomist,  Dr.  J. 
Kollmann,  has  published  a  critical  investigation  of 
the  most  ancient  skulls  discovered  in  America,  as  the 
one  I  have  already  referred  to  from  Calaveras  county, 

*  "  No  one  could  live  among  the  Indians  of  the  Upper  Amazon 
without  being  struck  with  their  constitutional  dislike  to  heat." 
"  The  impression  forced  itself  upon  my  mind  that  the  Indian  lives 
as  a  stranger  or  immigrant  in  these  hot  regions."  H.  W.  Bates, 
The  Naturalist  on  the  Amazon,  Vol.  II.,  pp.  200,  201. 

t  See  E.  F.  im  Thurn,  Among  the  Indians  of  Guiana,  pp.  189, 
190,  who  speaks  strongly  of  the  debility  cf  the  tropical  Indians. 


36  THE  AMERICAN   RACE. 

California,  one  from  Rock  Bluff,  Illinois,  one  from 
Pontimelo,  Buenos  Ayres,  and  others  from  the  caverns 
of  Lagoa  Santa,  Brazil,  and  from  the  loess  of  the 
Pampas.  All  these  are  credited  with  an  antiquity  go- 
ing back  nearly  to  the  close  of  the  last  glacial  period, 
and  are  the  oldest  yet  found  on  the  continent.  They 
prove  to  be  strictly  analogous  to  those  of  the  Indians 
of  the  present  day.  They  reveal  the  same  discrepancy 
in  form  which  we  now  encounter  in  the  crania  of  all 
American  tribes.  The  Calaveras  skull  and  that  from 
Pontimelo  are  brachycephalic ;  those  from  Lagoa 
Santa  dolichocephalic ;  but  both  possess  the  wide 
malar  arches,  the  low  orbital  indices,  the  medium 
nasal  apertures  and  the  general  broad  faces  of  the 
present  population.  Dr.  Kollmann,  therefore,  reaches 
the  conclusion  that  "the  variety  of  man  in  America 
at  the  close  of  the  glacial  period  had  the  same  facial 
form  as  the  Indian  of  to-day,  and  the  racial  traits 
which  distinguish  him  now,  did  also  at  that  time." 

The  marked  diversity  in  cranial  forms  here  indi- 
cated is  recognizable  in  all  parts  of  the  continent.  It 
has  frustrated  every  attempt  to  classify  the  existing 
tribes,  or  to  trace  former  lines  of  migration,  by 
grouping  together  similar  head-measurements.  This 
was  fully  acknowledged  by  the  late  Dr.  James  Aitken 
Meigs,  of  Philadelphia,  who,  taking  the  same  collec- 
tion of  skulls,  showed  how  erroneous  were  the  pre- 
vious statements  of  Dr.  Morton  in  his  Crania  Ameri- 
cana. The  recent  studies  of  Virchow  on  American 
crania  have  attained  the  same  conclusion.*  We  must 

*See  J.  Kollman,  Zeitschrift  fiir  Ethnologic,  1884,  s.  181  sq. 
The  conclusion  of  Virchow  is  ' '  que  les  caracteres  physionomiques 


CRANIOLOGY  CONSIDERED.  37 

dismiss  as  wholly  untenable  the  contrary  arguments 
of  the  French  and  other  craniologists,  and  still  more 
peremptorily  those  attempted  identifications  of  Ameri- 
can skulls  with  "  Mongolian  "  or  "  Mongoloid  "  types. 
Such  comparisons  are  based  on  local  peculiarities 
which  have  no  racial  value. 

Yet  it  must  not  be  supposed  from  this  that  carefully 
conducted  cranial  comparisons  between  tribes  and 
families  are  valueless  ;  on  the  contrary,  the  shape  and 
size  of  the  skull,  the  proportion  of  the  face,  and 
many  other  measurements,  are  in  the  average  highly 
distinctive  family  traits,  and  I  shall  frequently  call 
attention  to  them. 

The  lowest  cephalic  index  which  I  have  seen  re- 
ported from  an  American  skull  is  56,  which  is  that  of 
a  perforated  skull  from  Devil  river,  Michigan,  now 
in  the  medical  museum  at  Ann  Arbor  university ;  * 
the  highest  is  97,  from  a  Peruvian  skull,  though 
probably  this  was  the  result  of  an  artificial  de- 
formity. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  conclude  from  these  or  other 
diversities  in  skull  forms  that  the  American  race  is  a 
conglomerate  of  other  and  varied  stocks.  As  I  have 
pointed  out  elsewhere,  the  shape  of  the  skull  is  not  a 

des  tetes  Ame'ricaines  inontrent  une  divergence  si  manifeste  qu'on 
doit  renoncer  definitivement  a  la  construction  d'un  type  universel 
et  commun  des  Indigenes  Americains."  Congres  dcs  Amtrican- 
istes,  1888,  p.  260.  This  is  substantially  the  conclusion  at  which 
Dr.  James  Aitken  Meigs  arrived,  in  his  "  Observations  on  the 
Cranial  Forms  of  the  American  Aborigines,"  in  Proc.  of  the  Acad. 
Nat.  Set.  of  Phila.,  1866. 

*  Henry  Oilman,  Report  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  for  1885, 
p.  239.  Other  perforated  skulls  from  similar  graves  in  the  same 
locality  showed  indices  of,  82,  83,  85. 


38  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

fixed  element  in  human  anatomy,  and  children  of  the 
same  mother  may  differ  in  this  respect.* 

A  special  feature  in  American  skulls  is  the  pres- 
ence of  the  epactal  bone,  or  os  Incae,  in  the  occiput. 
It  is  found  in  a  complete  or  incomplete  condition  in 
3.86  per  cent,  of  the  skulls  throughout  the  continent, 
and  in  particular  localities  much  more  frequently ; 
among  the  ancient  Peruvians  for  example  in  6.08 
per  cent.,  and  among  the  former  inhabitants  of  the 
Gila  valley  in  6.8 1  per  cent.  This  is  far  more  fre- 
quently than  in  other  races,  the  highest  being  the 
negro,  which  offers  2.65  per  cent.,  while  the  Euro- 
peans yield  but  i.iQ.f  The  presence  of  the  bone  is 
due  to  a  persistence  of  the  transverse  occipital  suture, 
which  is  usually  closed  in  fetal  life.  Hence  it  is  a 
sign  of  arrested  development,  and  indicative  of  an 
inferior  race. 

The  majority  of  the  Americans  have  a  tendency  to 
meso-or  brachycephaly,  but  in  certain  families,  as  the 
Eskimos  in  the  extreme  north  and  the  Tapuyas  in 
Brazil,  the  skulls  are  usually  decidedly  long.  In 
other  instances  there  is  a  remarkable  difference  in 
members  of  the  same  tribe  and  even  of  the  same 
household.  Thus  among  the  Yumas  there  are  some 
with  as  low  an  index  as  68,  while  the  majority  are 
above  80,  and  among  the  dolichocephalic  Eskimos 
we  occasionally  find  an  almost  globular  skull.  So 
far  as  can  be  learned,  these  variations  appear  in  per- 

*  D.  G.  Brinton,  Races  and  Peoples  ;  Lectures  on  the  Science  of 
Ethnography,  p.  20.  (David  McKay,  Philadelphia.) 

f  Dr.  Washington  Matthews,  in  the  American  Anthropologist, 
1889,  p.  337. 


AMERICAN   SKULLS.  39 

sons  of  pure  blood.  Often  the  crania  differ  in  no 
wise  from  those  of  the  European.  Dr.  Hensell,  for 
instance,  says  that  the  skulls  of  pure-blood  Coroados 
of  Brazil,  which  he  examined,  corresponded  in  all 
points  to  those  of  the  average  German.* 

The  average  cubical  capacity  of  the  American 
skull  falls  below  that  of  the  white,  and  rises  above 
that  of  the  black  race.  Taking  both  sexes,  the 
Parisians  of  to-day  have  a  cranial  capacity  of  1448 
cubic  centimetres;  the  Negroes  1344  c.  c.  ;  the  Amer- 
ican Indians  1376^  But  single  examples  of  Indian 
skulls  have  yielded  the  extraordinary  capacity  of 
1747,  1825,  and  even  1920  cub.  cent,  which  are  not 
exceeded  in  any  other  race.  ^ 

The  hue  of  the  skin  is  generally  said  to  be  reddish, 
or  coppery,  or  cinnamon  color,  or  burnt  coffee  color. 
It  is  brown  of  various  shades,  with  an  undertone  of 
red.  Individuals  or  tribes  vary  from  the  prevail- 
ing hue,  but  not  with  reference  to  climate.  The 
Kolosch  of  the  northwest  coast  are  very  light  col- 
ored ;  but  not  more  so  than  the  Yurucares  of  the  Bo- 
livian Andes.  The  darkest  are  far  from  black,  and 
the  lightest  by  no  means  white. 

The  hair  is  rarely  wholly  black,  as  when  examined 
by  reflected  light  it  will  also  show  a  faint  undercolor 

*  Zeitschrift  fur  Ethnologic,  Bd.  II.,  s.  195. 

f  Cf .  Lucien  Carr,  in  the  Eleventh  Annual  Report  of  the  Pea- 
body  Museum,  p.  367. 

J  Lucien  Carr,  "  Notes  on  the  Crania  of  New  England  Indians," 
in  the  Anniversary  Memoirs  of  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural  His- 
tory, 1880  ;  and  compare  Topinard,  Elements  d"  Anthropologie  Gen- 
irale,  p.  628.  (Paris,  1885.) 


4O  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

of  red.  This  reddish  tinge  is  very  perceptible  in 
some  tribes,  and  especially  in  children.  Generally 
straight  and  coarse,  instances  are  not  wanting  where 
it  is  fine  and  silky,  and  even  slightly  wavy  or  curly. 
Although  often  compared  to  that  of  the  Chinese,  the 
resemblances  are  superficial,  as  when  critically  ex- 
amined, "  the  hair  of  the  American  Indian  differs  in 
nearly  every  particular  from  that  of  the  Mongolians 
of  eastern  Asia."  *  The  growth  is  thick  and  strong 
on  the  head,  scanty  on  the  body  and  on  the  face ; 
but  beards  of  respectable  length  are  not  wholly  un- 
known, f 

The  stature  and  muscular  force  vary.  The  Pata- 
gonians  have  long  been  celebrated  as  giants,  although 
in  fact  there  are  not  many  of  them  over  six  feet  tall. 
The  average  throughout  the  continent  would  prob- 
ably be  less  than  that  of  the  European.  But  there 
are  no  instances  of  dwarfish  size  to  compare  with  the 
Lapps,,  the  Bushmen,  or  the  Andaman  Islanders.  The 
hands  and  feet  are  uniformly  smaller  than  those  of 
Europeans  of  the  same  height.  The  arms  are  longer 
in  proportion  to  the  other  members  than  in  the  Euro- 
pean, but  not  so  much  as  in  the  African  race.  This 
is  held  to  be  one  of  the  anatomical  evidences  of  infer- 
iority. 

*H.  Fritsch,  in  Compte-Rendu  du  Cong res  des  Americanistcs, 
1888,  p.  276. 

f  For  instance,  some  of  the  Mixes  of  Mexico  have  full  beards 
(Herrera,  Decadas  de  las  Indias,  Dec.  IV.,  Lib.  IX.,  cap.  VII.)  ; 
the  Guarayos  of  Bolivia  wear  long  straight  beards,  covering  both 
lips  and  cheeks (D'Orbigny,  L^Homme  Americain,  Vol.  I.,  p.  126); 
and  the  Cashibos  of  the  upper  Ucayali  are  bearded  (Herndon,  Ex- 
ploration of  the  Valley  of  the  Amazon,  p.  209). 


COURSE   OF   MIGRATION.  41 

On  the  whole,  the  race  is  singularly  uniform  in  its 
physical  traits,  and  individuals  taken  from  any  part 
of  the  continent  could  easily  be  mistaken  for  inhabi- 
tants of  numerous  other  parts.  /' 

This  uniformity  finds  one  of  its  explanations  in 
the  geographical  features  of  the  continent,  which 
are  such  as  to  favor  migrations  in  longitude,  and 
thus  prevent  the  diversity  which  special  conditions 
in  latitude  tend  to  produce.  The  trend  of  the  moun- 
tain chains  and  the  flow  of  the  great  rivers  in  both 
South  and  North  America  generally  follow  the  course 
of  the  great  circles,  and  the  migrations  of  native  na- 
tions were  directed  by  these  geographic  features. 
Nor  has  the  face  of  the  land  undergone  any  serious 
alteration  since  man  first  occupied  it.  Doubtless  in 
his  early  days  the  Laramie  sea  still  covered  the  ex- 
tensive depression  in  that  part  of  our  country,  and  it 
is  possible  that  a  subsidence  of  several  hundred  feet 
altered  the  present  Isthmus  of  Panama  into  a  chain 
of  islands  ;  but  in  other  respects  the  continent  be- 
tween the  fortieth  parallels  north  and  south  has  re- 
mained substantially  the  same  since  the  close  of  the 
Tertiary  Epoch. 

Beyond  all  other  criteria  of  a  race  must  rank  its 
mental  endowments.  These  are  what  decide  irrevo- 
cably its  place  in  history  and  its  destiny  in  time. 
Some  who  have  personally  studied  the  American 
race  are  inclined  to  assign  its  psychical  potentialities  (r 
a  high  rank.  For  instance,  Mr.  Horatio  Hale  hesi- 
tates not  to  say  :  "  Impartial  investigation  and  com- 
parison will  probably  show  that  while  some  of  the 
aboriginal  communities  of  the  American  continent 


42  THE   AMERICAN   RACE, 

are  low  in  the  scale  of  intellect,  others  are  equal  in 
natural  capacity,  and  possibly  superior,  to  the  highest 
of  the  Indo-European  race."*  This  may  be  re- 
garded as  an  extremely  favorable  estimate.  Few  will 
assent  to  it,  and  probably  not  many  would  even  go 
so  far  as  Dr.  Amed£e  Moure  in  his  appreciation  of 
the  South  American  Indians,  which  he  expresses  in 
these  words  :  "  With  reference  to  his  mental  powers, 
the  Indian  of  South  America  should  be  classed  im- 
mediately after  the  white  race,  decidedly  ahead  of 
the  yellow  race,  and  especially  beyond  the  African."  f 

Such  general  opinions  are  interesting  because  both 
of  them  are  the  results  of  personal  observations  of 
many  tribes.  But  the  final  decision  as  to  the  abilities 
of  a  race  or  of  an  individual  must  be  based  on  actual 
accomplished  results,  not  on  supposed  endowments. 
Thus  appraised,  the  American  race  certainly  stands 
higher  than  the  Australian,  the  Polynesian  or  the 
African,  but  does  not  equal  the  Asian,  j,-- 

A  review  of  the  evidence  bears  out  this  opinion. 
Take  the  central  social  fact  of  government.  In  an- 
cient America  there  are  examples  of  firm  and  stable 
states,  extending  their  sway  widely  and  directed  by 
definite  policy.  The  league  of  the  Iroquois  was  a 
thoroughly  statesman-like  creation,  and  the  realm  of 
Peru  had  a  long  and  successful  existence.  That  this 
mental  quality  is  real  is  shown  by  the  recent  history 
of  some  of  the  Spanish-American  republics.  Two  of 

*  "  Report  on  the  Blackfeet,"  in  Trans.  Brit.  Assoc.  Adv.  of 
Science,  1885. 

t  "  Les  Indiens  de  la  Province  de  Mato  Grosso,"  in  the  Nou- 
velles  Annales  des  Voyages,  1862. 


NATIVE  ART.  43 

them,  Guatemala  and  Mexico,  count  among  their 
ablest  presidents  in  the  present  generation  pure-blood 
American  Indians.*  Or  we  may  take  up  the  arts. 
In  architecture  nothing  ever  accomplished  by  the 
Africans  or  Polynesians  approaches  the  pre-Colum- 
bian edifices  of  the  American  continent.  In  the  de- 
velopment of  artistic  forms,  whether  in  stone,  clay  or 
wood,  the  American  stands  next  to  the  white  race. 
I  know  no  product  of  Japanese,  Chinese  or  Dravidian 
sculpture,  for  example,  which  exhibits  the  human 
face  in  greater  dignity  than  the  head  in  basalt  fig- 
ured by  Humboldt  as  an  Aztec  priestess.f  The  in- 
vention of  a  phonetic  system  for  recording  ideas  was 
reached  in  Mexico,  and  is  striking  testimony  to  the 
ability  of  the  natives.  In  religious  philosophy  there 
is  ample  evidence  that  the  notion  of  a  single  incor- 
poreal Ruler  of  the  universe  had  become  familiar  both 
to  Tezcucans  and  Kechuas  previous  to  the  conquest. 

While  these  facts  bear  testimony  to  a  good  natural 
capacity,  it  is  also  true  that  the  receptivity  of  the  race 
for  a  foreign  civilization  is  not  great.  Even  individ- 
ual instances  of  highly  educated  Indians  are  rare  ; 
and  I  do  not  recall  any  who  have  achieved  distinction 
in  art  or  science,  or  large  wealth  in  the  business 
world. 

The  culture  of  the  native  Americans  strongly  at- 
tests the  ethnic  unity  of  the  race.  This  applies 
equally  to  the  ruins  and  relics  of  its  vanished  nations, 

*  The  Mexican  president  Benito  Juarez  was  a  full-blood  Zapotec  ; 
Barrios  of  Guatemala,  a  full-blood  Cakchiquel. 
t  Vues  des  Cordilteres,  et  Monumens  des  Peiiples  Indigenes  de 
,  Tome  I.  p.  51. 


44  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

as  to  the  institutions  of  existing  tribes.  Nowhere  do 
we  find  any  trace  of  foreign  influence  or  instruction, 
nowhere  any  arts  or  social  systems  to  explain  which 
we  must  evoke  the  aid  of  teachers  from  the  eastern 
hemisphere.  Th_e_culture  of  the  American  race,  in 
whatever  degree  they  possessed  it,  was  an  indigenous 
growth,  wholly  self-developed,  owing  none  of  its 
germs  to  any  other  race,  ear-marked  with  the  psy- 
chology of  the  stock. 

Furthermore,  this  culture  was  not,  as  is  usually 
supposed,  monopolized  by  a  few  nations  of  the  race. 
The  distinction  that  has  been  set  up  by  so  many  eth- 
nographers between  "  wild  tribes "  and  "  civilized 
tribes,"  Jdgervolker  and  Culturvolker,  is  an  artificial 
one,  and  conveys  a  false  idea  of  the  facts.  There  was 
no  such  sharp  line.  Different  bands  of  the  same 
linguistic  stock  were  found,  some  on  the  highest, 
others  on  the  lowest  stages  of  development,  as  is  strik- 
ingly exemplified  in  the  Uto-Aztecan  family.  Wher- 
ever there  was  a  center  of  civilization,  that  is,  wher- 
ever the  surroundings  favored  the  development  of 
culture,  tribes  of  different  stocks  enjoyed  it  to  nearly 
an  equal  degree,  as  in  central  Mexico  and  Peru.  By 
them  it  was  distributed,  and  thus  shaded  off  in  all 
directions. 

When  closely  analyzed,  the  difference  between  the 
highest  and  the  average  culture  of  the  race  is  much 
less  than  has  been  usually  taught.  The  Aztecs  of 
Mexico  and  the  Algonkins  of  the  eastern  United 
States  were  not  far  apart,  if  we  overlook  the  objec- 
tive art  of  architecture  and  one  or  two  inventions. 
To  contrast  the  one  as  a  wild  or  savage  with  the 


AMERICAN   CULTURE.  45 

other  as  a  civilized  people,  is  to  assume  a  false  point 
of  view  and  to  overlook  their  substantial  psychical 
equality. 

For  these  reasons  American  culture,  wherever  ex- 
amined, presents  a  family  likeness  which  the  more 
careful  observers  of  late  years  have  taken  pains  to 
put  in  a  strong  light.  This  was  accomplished  for 
governmental  institutions  and  domestic  architecture 
by  Lewis  H.  Morgan,  for  property  rights  and  the  laws 
of  war  by  A.  F.  Bandelier,  for  the  social  condition  of 
Mexico  and  Peru  by  Dr.  Gustav  Briihl,  and  I  may  add 
for  the  myths  and  other  expressions  of  the  religious 
sentiment  by  myself.* 

In  certain  directions  doubtless  the  tendency  has 
been  to  push  this  uniformity  too  far,  especially  with 
reference  to  governmental  institutions.  Mr.  Mor- 
gan's assertions  upon  this  subject  were  too  sweeping. 
Nevertheless  he  was  the  first  to  point  out  clearly  that 
ancient  American  society  was  founded,  not  upon  the 
family,  but  upon  the  gens,  totem  or  clan,  as  the  social 
unit.f  The  gens  is  "an  organized  body  of  consan- 
guineal  kindred  "  (Powell),  either  such  in  reality,  or? 
when  strangers  have  been  adopted,  so  considered  by 

*  Ancient  Society,  by  Lewis  H.  Morgan  (New  York,  1878); 
Houses  and  House-Life  of  the  American  Aborigines,  by  the  same 
(Washington,  1881);  Bandelier,  in  the  Reports  of  the  Peabody 
Museum  ;  Dr.  Gustav  Briihl,  Die  Culturvolker  Alt  Amerikas  (Cin- 
cinnati, 1887);  D.  G.  Brinton,  The  Myths  of  the  New  World,  sd 
Ed.  revised,  David  McKay  (Philadelphia,  1896);  American-Hero 
Myths,  by  the  same  (Philadelphia,  1882). 

t  The  word  totem  is  derived  from  the  Algonkin  root  od  or  ot 
and  means  that  which  belongs  to  a  person  or  "  his  belongings,"  in 
the  widest  sense,  his  village,  his  people,  etc. 


46  THE   AMERICAN    RACE. 

the  tribal  conscience.  Its  members  dwell  together  in 
one  house  or  quarter,  and  are  obliged  to  assist  each 
other.  An  indeterminate  number  of  these  gentes, 
make  up  the  tribe,  and  smaller  groups  of  several  of 
them  may  form  "  phratries,"  or  brotherhoods,  usually 
for  some  religious  purpose.  Each  gens  is  to  a  large 
extent  autonomic,  electing  its  own  chieftain,  and  de- 
ciding on  all  questions  of  property  and  especially  of 
blood-revenge,  within  its  own  limits.  The  tribe  is 
governed  by  a  council,  the  members  of  which  belong 
to  and  represent  the  various  gentes.  The  tribal  chief 
is  elected  by  this  council,  and  can  be  deposed  at  its 
will.  His  power  is  strictly  limited  by  the  vote  of  the 
council,  and  is  confined  to  affairs  of  peace.  For  war, 
a  "  war  chief "  is  elected  also  by  the  council,  who 
takes  sole  command.  Marriage  within  the  gens  is 
strictly  prohibited,  and  descent  is  traced  and  prop- 
erty descends  in  the  female  line  only. 

This  is  the  ideal  theory  of  the  American  tribal  or- 
ganization, and  we  may  recognize  its  outlines  almost 
anywhere  on  the  continent  ;  but  scarcely  anywhere 
shall  we  find  it  perfectly  carried  out.  The  gentile 
system  is  by  no  means  universal,  as  I  shall  have  occa- 
sion to  point  out ;  where  it  exists,  it  is  often  traced  in 
the  male  line ;  both  property  and  dignities  may  be  in- 
herited directly  from  the  father ;  consanguine  mar- 
riage, even  that  of  brother  and  sister  or  father  and 
daughter,  though  rare,  is  far  from  unexampled.*  In 
fact,  no  one  element  of  the  system  was  uniformly  re- 

*  Among  the  Brazilian  hordes,  for  instance,  Martins,  BeitragC 
zur  Ethnographic  und  Sprachenkundc  Amerikas,  Bd.  I.  s.  116 
(Leipzig,  1867). 


THE   GENTILE  SYSTEM.  47 

spected,  and  it  is  an  error  of  theorists  to  try  to  make 
it  appear  so.  It  varied  widely  in  the  same  stock  and 
in  all  its  expressions.*  This  is  markedly  true,  for 
instance,  in  domestic  architecture.  The  Lenap£,  who 
were  next  neighbors  to  the  Five  Nations,  had  noth- 
ing resembling  their  "  long  house,"  on  which  Mor- 
gan founded  his  scheme  of  communal  tenements ;  and 
the  efforts  which  some  later  writers  have  made  to 
identify  the  large  architectural  works  of  Mexico  and 
Yucatan  with  the  communal  pueblos  of  the  Gila  valley 
will  not  bear  the  test  of  criticism. 

The  foundation  of  the  gentile,  as  of  any  other 
family  life,  is,  as  I  have  shown  elsewhere,f  the  mu- 
tual affection  between  kindred.  In  the  primitive 
period  this  is  especially  between  the  children  of  the 
same  mother,  not  so  much  because  of  the  doubt  of 
paternity  as  because  physiologically  and  obviously  it 
is  the  mother  in  whom  is  formed  and  from  whom 
alone  proceeds  the  living  being.  Why  this  affection 
does  not  lead  to  the  marriage  of  uterine  brothers  and 
sisters — why,  on  the  contrary,  there  is  almost  every- 
where a  horror  of  such  unions — it  is  not  easy  to  ex- 
plain. Darwin  suggests  that  the  chief  stimulus  to 
the  sexual  feelings  is  novelty,  and  that  the  familiarity 
of  the  same  household  breeds  indifference ;  and  we 

*  Thus  the  Heiltsuk  and  Kwakiutl  of  the  northwest  coast, 
though  speaking  close  dialects  of  the  same  stock,  differ  funda- 
mentally in  their  social  organization.  That  of  the  former  is  ma- 
triarchal, of  the  latter  patriarchal.  Boas,  Fifth  Report  to  the  Brit. 
Assoc.  Adv.  Science,  p.  38. 

f  Races  and  Peoples  ;  Lectures  on  the  Science  of  Ethnography,  p. 
55  (David  McKay,  Philadelphia.) 


48  THE   AMERICAN    RACE. 

may  accept  this  in  default  of  a  completer  explana- 
tion. Certainly,  as  Moritz  Wagner  has  forcibly 
shown,*  this  repugnance  to  incest  is  wide-spread  in 
the  species,  and  has  exerted  a  powerful  influence  on 
its  physical  history. 

In  America  marriage  was  usually  by  purchase,  and 
was  polygamous.  In  a  number  of  tribes  the  pur- 
chase of  the  eldest  daughter  gave  the  man  a  right  to 
buy  all  the  younger  daughters,  as  they  reached  nubile 
age.  The  selection  of  a  wife  was  often  regarded  as  the 
concern  of  the  gens  rather  than  of  the  individual. 
Among  the  Hurons,  for  instance,  the  old  women  of 
the  gens  selected  the  wives  for  the  young  men,  "  and 
united  them  with  painful  uniformity  to  women  sev- 
eral years  their  senior."  f  Some  control  in  this  direc- 
tion was  very  usual,  and  was  necessary  to  prevent 
consanguine  unions. 

The  position  of  women  in  the  social  scheme  of  the 
American  tribes  has  often  been  portrayed  in  darker 
colors  than  the  truth  admits.  As  in  one  sense  a 
chattel,  she  had  few  rights  against  her  husband  ;  but 
some  she  had,  and  as  they  were  those  of  her  gens, 
these  he  was  forced  to  respect.  Where  maternal  de- 
scent prevailed,  it  was  she  who  owned  the  property 
of  the  pair,  and  could  control  it  as  she  listed.  It 
passed  at  her  death  to  her  blood  relatives  and  not  to 
his.  Her  children  looked  upon  her  as  their  parent, 
but  esteemed  their  father  as  no  relation  whatever. 

*  Die  Entstehung  der  Arten  durch  Raumliche  Sonderung 
(Basel,  1889). 

f  J.  W.  Sanborn,  Legends,  Customs  and  Social  Life  of  the  Seneca 
Indians,  p.  36  (Gowanda,  N.  Y.,  1878). 


MATRIARCHAL   SYSTEM.  49 

An  unusually  kind  and  intelligent  Kolosch  Indian 
was  chided  by  a  missionary  for  allowing  his  father  to 
suffer  for  food.  "  Let  him  go  to  his  own  people," 
replied  the  Kolosch,  "  they  should  look  after  him." 
He  did  not  regard  a  man  as  in  any  way  related  or 
bound  to  his  paternal  parent. 

The  women  thus  made  good  for  themselves  the 
power  of  property,  and  this  could  not  but  compel 
respect.  Their  lives  were  rated  at  equal  or  greater 
value  than  a  man's  ;  *  instances  are  frequent  where 
their  voice  was  important  in  the  council  of  the  tribe ; 
nor  was  it  very  rare  to  see  them  attaining  the  dignity 
of  head  chief.  That  their  life  was  toilsome  is  true ; 
but  its  dangers  were  less,  and  its  fatigues  scarce 
greater,  than  that  of  their  husbands.  Nor  was  it 
more  onerous  than  that  of  the  peasant  women  of 
Europe  to-day. 

Such  domestic  arrangements  seem  strange  to  us, 
but  they  did  not  exclude  either  conjugal  or  parental 
affection.  On  the  contrary,  the  presence  of  such  sen- 
timents has  impressed  travelers  among  even  the 
rudest  tribes,  as  the  Eskimos,  the  Yumas  and  the 
hordes  of  the  Chaco  ;  f  and  Miss  Alice  Fletcher  tells  me 
she  has  constantly  noted  such  traits  in  her  studies  of 
life  in  the  wisrwam.  The  husband  and  father  will 


*  Father  Ragueneau  tells  us  that  among  the  Hurons,  when  a  man 
•was  killed,  thirty  gifts  were  required  to  condone  the  offence,  but 
when  a  woman  was  the  victim,  forty  were  demanded.  Relation 
des  Jesuits,  1635. 

fDr.  W.  H.  Corbusier,  in  American  Antiquarian,  Sept.,  1886; 
Dr.  Amedde Moure,  Les Indiens  de  Mato  C rosso,  p.  9  (Paris,  1862). 
4 


5O  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

often  undergo  severe  privations  for  his  wife  and  chil- 
dren. 

The  error  to  which  I  have  referred  of  classifying 
the  natives  into  wild  and  civilized  tribes  has  led  to 
regarding  the  one  as  agricultural,  and  the  other  as 
depending  exclusively  on  hunting  and  fishing.  Such 
was  not  the  case.  The  Americans  were  inclined  to 
agriculture  in  nearly  all  regions  where  it  was  profit- 
able. Maize  was  cultivated  both  north  and  south  to 
the  geographical  extent  of  its  productive  culture; 
beans,  squashes,  pumpkins,  and  potatoes  were  assid- 
uously planted  in  suitable  latitudes ;  the  banana  was 
rapidly  accepted  after  its  introduction,  even  by  tribes 
who  had  never  seen  a  white  man  ;  cotton  for  clothing 
and  tobacco  as  a  luxury  were  staple  crops  among  very 
diverse  stocks.  The  Iroquois,  Algonkins  and  Mus- 
kokis  of  the  Atlantic  coast  tilled  large  fields,  and 
depended  upon  their  harvests  for  the  winter  supplies. 
The  difference  between  them  and  the  sedentary  Mex- 
icans or  Mayas  in  this  respect  was  not  so  wide  as  has 
been  represented. 

It  was  a  serious  misfortune  for  the  Americans  that 
the  fauna  of  the  continent  did  not  offer  any  animal 
which  could  be  domesticated  for  a  beast  of  draft  or 
burden.  There  is  no  doubt  but  that  the  horse  ex- 
isted on  the  continent  contemporaneously  with  post- 
glacial man  ;  and  some  palaeontologists  are  of  opinion 
that  the  European  and  Asian  horses  were  descendants 
of  the  American  species  ;  *  but  for  some  mysterious 
reason  the  genus  became  extinct  in  the  New  World 

*  This  opinion  is  defended  by  Max  Schlosser  in  the  Archivfur 
Anthropologie,  1889,  s.  132. 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS.  51 

many  generations  before  its  discovery.  The  dog,  do- 
mesticated from  various  species  of  the  wolf,  was  a  poor 
substitute.  He  aided  somewhat  in  hunting,  and  in 
the  north  as  an  animal  of  draft ;  but  was  of  little 
general  utility.  The  lama  in  the  Cordilleras  in  South 
America  was  prized  principally  for  his  hair,  and  was 
also  utilized  for  burdens,  but  not  for  draft.*  Nor 
were  there  any  animals  which  could  be  domesticated 
for  food  or  milk.  The  buffalo  is  hopelessly  wild,  and 
the  peccary,  or  American  hog,  is  irreclaimable  in  its 
love  of  freedom.  _  — 

We  may  say  that  America  everywhere  at  the  time  - 
of  the  discovery  was  in  the  polished  stone  age.  It 
had  progressed  beyond  the  rough  stone  stage,  but 
had  not  reached  that  of  metals.  True  that  copper, 
bronze  and  the  precious  ores  were  widely  employed 
for  a  variety  of  purposes ;  but  flaked  and  polished 
stone  remained  in  all  parts  the  principal  material 
selected  to  produce  a  cutting  edge.  Probably  three- 
fourths  of  the  tribes  were  acquainted  with  the  art  of 
tempering  and  moulding  clay  into  utensils  or  figures  ; 
but  the  potter's  wheel  and  the  process  of  glazing  had 
not  been  invented.  Towns  and  buildings  were  laid 
out  with  a  correct  eye,  and  stone  structures  of  sym- 
metry were  erected ;  but  the  square,  the  compass,  the 
plumb  line,  and  the  scales  and  weight  had  not  been 
devised. f  Commodious  boats  of  hollowed  logs  or  of 

*The  lama  was  never  ridden,  nor  attached  for  draft,  though  the 
opposite  has  been  stated.  See  J.  J.  von  Tschudi,  "  Das  Lama,"  in 
Zeitschrift  fur  Ethnologic,  1885,  s.  108. 

•{•See  "The  Lineal  Measures  of  the  Semi-Civilized  Nations  of 
Mexico  and  Central  America,"  hi  my  Essays  of  an  Americanist, 
p.  433  (Philadelphia,  1890). 


52  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

bark,  or  of  skins  stretched  on  frames,  were  in  use  on 
most  of  the  waters ;  but  the  inventive  faculties  of  their 
makers  had  not  reached  to  either  oars  or  sails  to  pro- 
pel them,*  the  paddle  alone  being  relied  upon,  and 
the  rudder  to  guide  them  was  unknown.  The  love 
of  music  is  strong  in  the  race,  and  wind  instruments 
and  those  sounded  by  percussion  had  been  devised 
in  considerable  variety;  but  the  highest  type,  the 
string  instruments,  were  beyond  their  capacity  of 
invention. 

"he  religious  sentiment  was  awake  in  all  the  tribes 
of  the  continent,'  and  even  the  lowest  had  myths  and 
propitiatory  rites  by  which  to  explain  to  themselves 
and  cajole  to  their  own  interests  the  unknown  powers 
which  order  the  destiny  of  human  life.  There  is  a 
singular  similarity  in  these  myths.  The  leading 
cycle  of  them  usually  describes  the  exploits  of  a  di- 
vine man,  the  national  hero-god,  who  was  the  first 
instructor,  often  the  ancestor  of  the  tribe,  and  the 
creator  of  the  visible  universe.  His  later  history  is 
related  with  singular  parallelism  by  tribes  in  Canada 
and  Mexico,  in  Yucatan  and  Uruguay.  After  teach- 
ing his  people  the  arts  of  life  and  the  sacred  rites,  the 
forms  of  their  social  organizations  and  the  medicinal 
powers  of  plants,  he  left  in  some  mysterious  way, 
not  by  the  event  of  death,  but  for  a  journey,  or  by 
rising  to  the  sky  ;  leaving  with  them,  however,  his 
promise  to  return  at  some  future  day,  when  they 
should  need  him,  and  he  should  again  become  their 
guide  and  protector. 

*  The  Caribs  and  some  of  the  Peruvian  coast  tribes  sometimes 
lifted  a  large  square  cloth  when  running  with  the  wind  ;  but  this 
is  not  what  is  meant  by  a  sail. 


MYTHS   AND    RELIGION.  53 

The  interpretation  of  this  fundamental  American 
myth,  which  I  have  shown  to  be  the  typical  religious 
legend  of  the  race,*  offers  an  interesting  problem. 
Comparing  it  with  others  of  similar  form  in  Egyptian 
and  Aryac  antiquity,  I  have  explained  it  as  based  on 
the  natural  phenomenon  of  the  returning  and  depart- 
ing day,  as,  if  not  a  solar,  at  least  a  light  myth,  devel- 
oped through  personification  and  etymologic  pro- 
cesses. Often  the  hero-god  is  identified  with  some 
animal,  as  the  raven,  the  rabbit,  the  wolf  or  coyote, 
the  jaguar,  the  toucan,  etc.  Possibly  in  these  we 
may  recognize  the  "  totemic  animal  "  after  which  the 
gens  was  named  ;  but  in  most  cases  the  identification 
cannot  be  made. 

The  hero-god  is  usually  connected  with  tales  of  a 
creation  and  a  flood,  or  other  destruction  of  the  world. 
These  cosmogonical  and  cataclysmal  myths  belong 
together,  and  arise  from  the  same  impulse  to  explain 
cosmic  phenomena  by  the  analogy  with  ordinary 
changes  of  the  seasons  and  the  day.  In  constant 
connection  with  them,  and  also  with  the  rites  of  re- 
ligion and  medicine,  with  the  social  institutions  and 
the  calendar,  with  the  plans  of  edifices  and  the  ar- 
rangement of  gens  and  phratries,  in  fact,  with  all  the 
apparatus  of  life,  was  a  respect  for  the  sacred  num- 
ber. It  is  strange  how  constantly  this  presents  itself 
throughout  American  life,  and  is,  in  fact,  the  key  to 
many  of  its  forms.  The  sacred  number  is  Four,  and 
its  origin  is  from  the  four  cardinal  points.  These 
were  the  guides  to  the  native  in  his  wanderings,  and, 
as  identified  with  the  winds,  were  the  deities  who 

*  American  Hero-Myths  (Philadelphia,  1882). 


54  THE  AMERICAN   RACE. 

brought  about  the  change  of  the  seasons  and  the  phe- 
nomena of  the  weather.  They  were  represented  by 
the  symbols  of  the  cross,  whose  four  arms  we  see  por- 
trayed on  the  altar  tablet  of  Palenque,  on  the  robes 
of  the  Mexican  priests,  in  the  hieroglyphs  of  the 
Algonkins,  and  in  countless  other  connections. 

A  rich  symbolism  rapidly  developed  in  all  the 
sedentary  tribes,  and  very  much  along  the  same  lines. 
The  bird,  the  serpent,  the  sacred  stone,  the  tree  of 
life,  water  as  a  purifier,  the  perpetual  fire,  all  these 
are  members  of  a  religious  symbolism,  clear  signs  of 
which  recur  in  all  segments  of  the  continent.  The 
chants  and  dances,  the  ritual  of  the  medicine  men, 
the  functions  of  esoteric  orders  and  secret  societies, 
present  a  resemblance  greater  than  that  which  can  be 
explained  by  a  mere  similarity  in  the  stage  of  culture. 
I  explain  it  by  the  ethnic  and  psychical  unity  of  the 
race,  and  its  perpetual  freedom  from  any  foreign  in- 
fluence. 

The  mortuary  rites  indicated  a  belief  in  the  con- 
tinued existence  of  the  individual  after  apparent 
death.  These  were  by  incineration,  by  inhumation, 
by  exposure,  or  by  mummification.  Articles  were 
placed  with  the  deceased  for  use  in  his  future  state, 
and  the  ceremonies  of  mourning  were  frequently 
severe  and  protracted.  A  sacredness  was  generally 
attached  to  the  bones  and  therefore  these  were  care- 
fully preserved.  In  accordance  with  a  superstition 
widely  felt  in  the  Old  World,  they  were  supposed  to 
harbor  some  share  of  the  departed  spirit.  The  con- 
ception of  the  after  life  is  wholly  material.  The 
Zapotec,  for  instance,  believes  that  he  will  return  to 


MEDICINE-MEN.  55 

his  familiar  haunts  after  a  few  hundred  years,  and 
buries  all  the  money  he  makes  that  he  may  then  live 
at  his  ease.  Von  Gagern  estimates  the  amount  of 
silver  thus  secreted  and  lost  within  the  last  century  at 
a  hundred  million  dollars.* 

The  ceremonies  of  religion,  which  included  that  of 
the  treatment  of  disease,  inasmuch  as  a  demonic 
cause  was  always  assigned  to  illness,  were  in  the 
hands  of  a  particular  class,  known  to  the  whites  as 
"  medicine  men,"  or  shamans,  or  sorcerers.  Some- 
times the  right  of  belonging  to  this  order  was  heredi- 
tary in  a  gens,  but  generally  peculiar  aptitude  for  the 
business  was  the  only  requirement.  Many  of  them 
were  skilled  in  legerdemain,  and  even  to-day  some  of 
their  tricks  puzzle  the  acutest  white  observers.  As 
doctors,  augurs,  rain-makers,  spell-binders,  leaders 
of  secret  societies,  and  depositaries  of  the  tribal  tradi- 
tions and  wisdom,  their  influence  was  generally  pow- 
erful. Of  course  it  was  adverse  to  the  Europeans, 
especially  the  missionaries,  and  also  of  course  it  was 
generally  directed  to  their  own  interest  or  that  of 
their  class  ;  but  this  is  equally  true  of  priestly  power 
wherever  it  gains  the  ascendency,  and  the  injurious 
effect  of  the  Indian  shamans  on  their  nations  was  not 
greater  than  has  been  in  many  instances  that  of  the 
Christian  priesthood  on  European  communities.  

The  psychic  identity  of  the  Americans  is  well 
illustrated  in  their  languages.  There  are  indeed  in- 
definite discrepancies  in  their  lexicography  and  in 
their  surface  morphology  ;  but  in  their  logical  sub- 

*  Carlos  de  Gagern,  Charakteristik  der  Indianischen  Bevdlker- 
ung  Mexikos,  s.  23  (Wien,  1873.) 


56  THE   AMERICAN    RACE. 

structure,  in  what  Wilhelm  von  Humboldt  called  the 
"  inner  form,"  they  are  strikingly  alike.  The  points 
in  which  this  is  especially  apparent  are  in  the  develop- 
ment of  pronominal  forms,  in  the  abundance  of  gen- 
eric particles,  in  the  overweening  preference  for 
concepts  of  action  (verbs),  rather  than  concepts  of 
existence  (nouns),  and  in  the  consequent  subordina- 
tion of  the  latter  to  the  former  in  the  proposition. 
This  last  mentioned  trait  is  the  source  of  that  char- 
acteristic which  is  called  incorporation.  The  Ameri- 
can languages  as  a  rule  are  essentially  incorporative 
languages,  that  is,  they  formally  include  both  sub- 
ject and  object  in  the  transitive  concept,  and  its  oral 
expression.  It  has  been  denied  by  some  able  lin- 
guists that  this  is  a  characteristic  trait  of  American 
languages ;  but  I  have  yet  to  find  one,  of  which  we 
possess  ample  means  of  analysis,  in  which  it  does  not 
•appear  in  one  or  another  of  its  forms,  thus  revealing 
the  same  linguistic  impulse.  Those  who  reject  it  as 
a  feature  have  been  led  astray  either  by  insufficient 
means  of  information  about  certain  languages,  or  by 
not  clearly  comprehending  the  characteristics  of  the 
incorporative  process  itself.* 

As  intimated,  however,  in  spite  of  this  underlying 
sameness,  there  is  wide  diversity  in  the  tongues  them- 
selves. Where  we  cannot  find  sufficient  coincidences 
of  words  and  grammar  in  two  languages  to  admit  of 
supposing  that  under  the  laws  of  linguistic  science 
they  are  related,  they  are  classed  as  independent 

*  I  have  treated  this  subject  at  considerable  length  in  opposition 
to  the  opinion  of  Lucien  Adam  and  Friederich  Mu'ller  in  my 
Essays  of  an  Americanist,  pp.  349^389  (Philadelphia,  1890). 


LANGUAGES.  57 

stocks  or  families.  Of  such  there  are  about  eighty  in 
North  and  as  many  in  South  America.  These  stocks 
offer  us,  without  doubt,  our  best  basis  for  the  ethnic 
classification  of  the  American  tribes  ;  the  only  basis, 
indeed,  which  is  of  any  value.  The  efforts  which 
have  been  heretofore  made  to  erect  a  geographic  clas- 
sification, with  reference  to  certain  areas,  political  or 
physical ;  or  a  craniological  one,  with  reference  to 
skull  forms ;  or  a  cultural  one,  with  reference  to 
stages  of  savagery  and  civilization,  have  all  proved 
worthless.  The  linguistic  is  the  only  basis  on  which 
the  subdivision  of  the  race  should  proceed.  Similarity 
of  idioms  proves  to  some  extent  similarity  of  descent 
and  similarity  of  psychic  endowments.  Of  course, 
there  has  been  large  imposition  of  one  language  on 
another  in  the  world's  history  ;  but  never  without  a 
corresponding  infiltration  of  blood  ;  so  that  the 
changes  in  language  remain  as  evidence  of  national 
and  race  cormninglings.  I  select,  therefore,  the  lin- 
guistic classification  of  the  American  race  as  the  only 
one  of  any  scientific  value,  and,  therefore,  that  which 
alone  merits  consideration. 

The  precise  number  of  linguistic  stocks  in  use  in 
America  at  the  discovery  has  not  been  made  out.  In 
that  portion  of  the  continent  north  of  Mexico  the  re- 
searches of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology  of  the  United 
States  have  defined  fifty-nine  stocks,  no  less  than 
forty  of  which  were  confined  to  the  narrow  strip  of 
land  between  the  Rocky  mountains  and  the  Pacific 
ocean. 

For  convenience  of  study  I  shall  classify  all  the 
stocks  into  five  groups,  as  follows  : — 


58  THE  AMERICAN   RACE. 

I.  The  North  Atlantic  Group. 
II.  The  North  Pacific  Group. 

III.  The  Central  Group. 

IV.  The  South  Pacific  Group. 
V.  The  South  Atlantic  Group. 

This  arrangement  is  not  one  of  convenience  only; 
I  attach  a  certain  ethnographic  importance  to  this 
classification.  There  is  a  distinct  resemblance  be- 
tween the  two  Atlantic  groups,  and  an  equally  distinct 
contrast  between  them  and  the  Pacific  groups,  ex- 
tending to  temperament,  culture  and  physical  traits. 
Each  of  the  groups  has  mingled  extensively  within 
its  own  limits,  and  but  slightly  outside  of  them. 
Each  is  subject  to  conditions  of  temperature,  altitude 
and  humidity,  which  are  peculiar  to  itself,  and  which 
have  exerted  definite  influences  on  the  constitution 
and  the  history  of  its  inhabitants.  Such  a  subdi- 
vision of  the  race  is  therefore  justified  by  anthropol- 
ogic  considerations. 


I.  THE  NORTH  ATLANTIC  GROUP. 


I.  THE   ESKIMOS. 

word  Eskimo,  properly  Eski-mwhan,  means 
1  in  the  Abnaki  dialect  of  Algonquin,  "  he  eats 
raw  flesh,"  and  was  applied  to  the  tribe  from  its  cus- 
tom of  consuming  fish  and  game  without  cooking. 
They  call  themselves  Inmtit,  "  people,"  a  term  the 
equivalent  of  which  is  the  usual  expression  applied 
by  American  natives  to  their  own  particular  stock. 

The  Innuit  are  at  present  essentially  a  maritime 
and  arctic  nation,  occupying  the  coast  and  adjacent 
islands  from  the  Straits  of  Belle  Isle  on  the  Atlantic 
to  Icy  Bay,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  St.  Elias  on  the 
Pacific,  and  extending  their  wanderings  and  settle- 
ments as  far  up  Smith's  Sound  as  N.  Lat.  80°,  where 
they  are  by  far  the  northernmost  inhabitants  of  the 
earth.  They  have  occupied  Greenland  for  certainly 
more  than  a  thousand  years,  and  were  the  earliest 
settlers  in  some  of  the  Aleutian  islands.  Portions  of 
them  at  some  remote  period  crossed  Behring  Strait  and 
settled  on  Asiatic  soil,  while  others  established  them- 
selves along  the  shores  of  Newfoundland.  Indeed, 
from  the  reports  of  the  early  Norse  explorers  and 
from  the  character  of  relics  found  on  the  Atlantic 
coast,  it  is  probable  that  they  once  extended  as  far 

(59) 


60  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

south  as  the  mouth  of  the  Delaware  river.*  Their 
ancestors  quite  possibly  dwelt  on  the  moors  of  New 
England  when  the  reindeer  browsed  there,  and  ac- 
companied that  quadruped  in  his  final  migration  to 
the  north.  They  belong  in  history  and  character  to 
the  Atlantic  peoples. 

This  question,  as  to  where  their  common  progeni- 
tors resided,  has  been  much  discussed.  A  favorite 
theory  of  some  writers  has  been  that  they  migrated 
out  of  Asia  by  way  of  Behring  Strait ;  but  those  who 
have  studied  their  culture  on  the  spot  do  not  advocate 
this  opinion.  These  observers  have,  without  excep- 
tion, reached  the  conclusion  that  the  Innuit  were  origi- 
nally an  inland  people,  that  their  migrations  were 
toward  the  north  and  west,  and  that  they  have  been 
gradually  forced  to  the  inhospitable  climes  they  oc- 
cupy by  the  pressure  of  foes.  Dr.  Rink,  who  passed 
many  years  among  them,  would  look  for  their  early 
home  somewhere  in  Alaska  ;  but  Mr.  John  Murdoch 
and  Dr.  Franz  Boas,  two  of  our  best  authorities  on 
this  tribe,  incline  to  the  view  that  their  primal  home 
was  to  the  south  of  Hudson  Bay,  whence  they  separ- 
ated into  three  principal  hordes,  the  one  passing  into 
Labrador  and  reaching  Greenland,  the  second  mov- 
ing to  the  coast  of  the  Arctic  sea,  and  the  third  to 
Alaska.  These  form  respectively  the  Greenland, 
the  Chiglit  and  the  Kadjak  dialects  of  the  common 
tongue. f 

*  Packard,  "  Notes  on  the  Labrador  Eskimo  and  their  former 
range  southward,"  in  American  Naturalist,  1885,  p.  471. 

t  John  Murdoch,  in  The  American  Anthropologist,  1888,  p.  129  ; 
also  Dr.  Henry  Rink,  The  Eskimo  Tribes  (London,  1887)  ;  Dr. 


TRAITS   OF  THE   ESKIMOS.  6l 

The  closest  observers  report  the  physical  traits  of 
the  Eskimos  as  thoroughly  American  and  not  Asian, 
as  has  sometimes  been  alleged.*  In  appearance  the 
Innuits  of  pure  blood  are  of  medium  or  slightly  un- 
dersize,  color  dark,  nose  prominent  and  sometimes 
aquiline,  hair  dark  brown  or  black,  moderately 
strong  on  the  face,  the  pubes  and  in  the  axilla ; 
the  eyes  are  dark  brown  and  occasionally  blue.  The 
skull  is  generally  long  (dolichocephalic),  but  is  sub- 
ject to  extensive  variations  ranging  from  almost 
globular  to  exceptionally  long  and  narrow  speci- 
mens, f 

In  spite  of  the  hardships  of  their  life,  the  Innuits 
are  of  a  singularly  placid  and  cheerful  temperament, 
good-natured  among  themselves  and  much  given  to 
mirth  and  laughter.  \  The  ingenuity  with  which 
they  have  learned  to  overcome  the  difficulties  of  their 

Franz  Boas,  The  Central  Eskimo,  in  the  Sixth  Annual  Report  of 
the  Bureau  of  Ethnology  ;  W.  H.  Dall,  Tribes  of  the  Extreme 
Northwest  (Washington,  1887);  Ivan  Petroff,  in  The  American 
Naturalist,  1882,  p.  567. 

*  Dall  is  positive  that  there  is  no  racial  distinction  between  the 
Innuit  and  the  other  American  Indians,  loc.  cit.,  p.  95.  He  adds  : 
"The  Tartar,  Japanese  or  Chinese  origin  of  these  people  finds  no 
corroboration  in  their  manners,  dress  or  language." 

f  Commander  G.  Holm  found  the  East  Greenlanders,  a  pure 
stock,  well  marked  mesocephalic,  with  a  maximum  of  84.2  (Les 
Cronlandais  Orientaux,  p.  365,  Copenhagen,  1889).  Dall  gives 
the  range  to  his  measurements  of  Innuit  skulls  from  87  to  70  (Con- 
tributions to  American  Ethnology,  Vol.  I,  p.  71). 

\  "  Unlike  the  Indian,"  writes  Mr.  F.  F.  Payne,  "  the  Eskimo  is 
nearly  always  laughing,  and  even  in  times  of  great  distress  it  is 
not  hard  to  make  them  smile."  "  The  Eskimo  at  Hudson  Strait," 
in  Proc.  Canad.  Institute,  1889,  p.  128. 


62  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

situation  is  quite  surprising.  In  a  country  without 
wood  or  water,  frightfully  cold,  and  yielding  no  man- 
ner of  edible  fruit  or  vegetable,  they  manage  to  live 
and  thrive.  Their  principal  nurriture  is  the  pro- 
duct of  the  sea.  They  build  boats  called  kayaks  or 
bidarkas  from  the  bones  of  walrus  covered  with  the 
skins  of  seals ;  their  winter  houses  are  of  blocks  of 
snow  laid  up  on  the  principle  of  the  circular  arch  to 
form  a  dome,  with  windows  of  sheets  of  ice.  These 
they  warm  by  means  of  stone  lamps  fed  with  blubber 
oil.  Their  clothing  is  of  bird  skins  and  furs,  and  they 
are  skilled  in  the  preparation  of  a  sort  of  leather.  As 
faithful  companions  they  have  their  dogs,  intelligent 
animals,  used  both  in  hunting  and  for  drawing  small 
sledges  built  of  wood  or  bone. 

With  their  tools  of  bone  or  stone  they  fashion  many 
curious  and  useful  articles,  displaying  a  marked  in- 
ventive faculty  and  an  artistic  eye.  The  picture- 
writing  which  they  devised  for  the  assistance  of  their 
memory  is  greatly  superior  to  any  found  north  of 
Mexico  in  the  faithful  delineation  of  objects,  espe- 
cially of  animal  forms.* 

The  long  winter  nights  are  enlivened  by  music  and 
songs,  of  which  they  are  passionately  fond,  and  by 
the  recital  of  imaginative  tales,  the  stock  of  which  is 
inexhaustible.  A  skillful  bard  enjoys  a  wide  reputa- 
tion, and  some  of  their  poems  contain  fine  and  delicate 
sentiments,  f  Others  are  from  ancient  date,  and  are 

*W.  J.Hoffman,  "On  Indian  and  Eskimo  Pictography,"  in 
Trans,  Anthrop.  Soc.  of  Washington,  Vol.  II,  p.  146. 

f  See  some  examples  in  my  Essays  of  an  Americanist ',  pp.  288- 
290  (Philadelphia,  1890). 


SONGS  AND   STORIES.  63 

passed  down  from  generation  to  generation  with  scru- 
pulous fidelity,  every  tone,  every  gesture,  being  imi- 
tated. The  meter  and  rendition  of  their  songs  seem 
to  the  European  monotonous,  but  the  Eskimo  has 
his  own  notion  of  the  music  of  verse,  and  it  is  a  very 
advanced  one  ;  he  would  have  it  akin  to  the  sweet 
sounds  of  nature,  and  for  that  reason  their  poets  sleep 
by  the  sound  of  running  water  that  they  may  catch 
its  mysterious  notes,  and  model  on  them  their  own 
productions.*  These  songs  also  serve  as  a  peaceful 
means  to  allay  feuds.  When  two  persons  quarrel, 
they  will  appoint  an  evening  and  sing  "  nith  songs" 
at  each  other,  and  the  audience  will  decide  which 
comes  out  best.  This  verdict  will  put  an  end  to  the 
ill-feeling. 

The  imaginative  character  of  the  people  is  also 
reflected  in  their  religions.  They  believe  in  one  or 
several  overruling  powers,  and  in  a  multitude  of  in- 
ferior spirits  and  uncanny  monsters.  These  require 
propitiation  rather  than  worship.  The  general  belief 
is  that  a  person  has  two  souls,  one  of  which  is  in- 
separably connected  with  his  name  and  passes  with  it 
to  any  infant  named  for  him ;  while  the  second  either 
descends  to  a  warm  and  pleasant  abode  under  the 
earth  or  passes  to  a  less  agreeable  one  in  the  sky ;  the 
streaming  lights  of  the  aurora  borealis  were  sometimes 
thought  to  be  these  latter  spirits  in  their  celestial 
home. 

The  rites  of  their  religion  were  performed  chiefly 
by  the  priests,  called  angekoks,  who,  however,  were 

*G.  Holm,  Les  Gronlandais  Orientaux,  p.  382  (Copenhagen, 
1889). 


64  THE  AMERICAN    RACE. 

little  better  than  conjurers.  In  some  parts  this  office 
was  hereditary. 

The  language  of  the  Innuits  is  very  much  the  same 
throughout  the  whole  of  their  extended  domain. 
Bishop  de  Schweinitz  once  told  me  that  a  few  years 
ago  a  convert  from  the  Moravian  mission  in  Labra- 
dor went  to  Alaska,  and  it  required  but  a  few  weeks 
for  him  to  understand  and  be  understood  by  the  na- 
tives there.  In  character  the  tongue  is  highly  agglu- 
tinative, the  affixes  being  joined  to  the  end  of  the 
word.  The  verb  is  very  complex,  having  thirty- 
one  hundred  modified  forms,  all  different  and  all  in- 
variable.* It  is  rich  in  expressions  for  all  the  objects 
of  Eskimo  life,  and  is  harmonious  to  the  ear.  Like 
the  Greek,  it  has  three  numbers,  singular,  dual  and 
plural. 

Those  Eskimos  who  live  in  Asia  call  themselves 
Ymt,  a  dialect  form  of  Innuit.  They  dwell  around 
East  Cape  and  the  shore  south  of  it,  in  immediate 
contact  with  the  Namollos  or  Sedentary  Chukchis,  a 
Sibiric  people,  totally  different  in  language,  appear- 
ance and  culture.  The  Yuits  have  not  at  all  assimi- 
lated to  the  reindeer-keeping,  pastoral  habits  of  the 
Chukchis,  and  by  their  own  well-preserved  traditions, 
moved  across  the  straits  from  the  American  side,  with 
which  they  continue  commercial  intercourse.  Their 
villages  are  sometimes  close  to  those  of  the  Namollos, 
or  Sedentary  Chukchis,  they  intermarry,  and  have  a 
jargon  sufficient  for  their  mutual  purposes  ;  but  it  is 
an  error,  though  a  prevailing  one,  to  suppose  that 

*Dr.  A.  Pfizmaier,  Darlcgungen  Gronlandischer  I'erbalformen 
(Wien,  1885). 


THE   ALEUTIANS.  65 

they  are  the  same  people.  The  Chukchis  never  en- 
tered America,  and  the  Innuits,  as  a  people,  never 
crossed  from  Asia,  or  originated  there.*  The  jade  im- 
plements of  northeastern  Siberia  have  proved  to  be  of 
the  Alaskan  variety  of  that  stone,  and  not  the  Chinese 
jade,  as  some  supposed. f 

From  all  points  whence  we  have  definite  informa- 
tion, this  interesting  people  are  steadily  diminish- 
ing in  numbers,  even  where  they  are  not  in  contact 
with  the  whites.  The  immediate  causes  appear  to  be 
increasing  sterility  and  infant  mortality.  Two  sur- 
viving children  to  a  marriage  is  about  the  average 
productiveness,  and  statistics  show  that  it  requires 
double  this  number  for  a  population  to  maintain  itself 
even  stationary. 

The  Aleutian  branch  occupies  the  long  chain  of 
islands  which  stretch  westward  from  the  southwestern 
corner  of  Alaska.  The  climate  is  mild,  the  sea 
abounds  in  fish,  and  innumerable  birds  nest  in  the 
rocks.  We  may  therefore  believe  the  navigators  of 
the  last  century,  who  placed  the  population  of  the 
islands  at  25,000  or  30,000  souls,  although  at  present 
they  have  sunk  to  about  2,000.  They  have  the  same 

*  On  the  relative  position  of  the  Chukchis,  Namollos  and  Yuit, 
consult  Dall  in  American  Naturalist,  1881,  p.  862  ;  J.  W.  Kelly, 
in  Circular  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  No.  2,  1890,  p.  8  ; 
A.  Pfizmaier,  Die Sprachen  derAleuten,  p.  i  (Vienna,  1884).  The 
Yuits  are  also  known  as  Tuski.  The  proper  location  of  the  Na- 
mollos is  on  the  Arctic  Sea,  from  East  Cape  to  Cape  Shelagskoi 
(Dall). 

t  Proceedings  of  the  U.  S.  National  Museum ,  1883,  p.  427.  All 
of  Clement  G.  Markham's  arguments  for  the  Asiatic  origin  of  the 
Eskimos  have  been  refuted. 

5 


66  THE    AMERICAN   RACE. 

cheerful  temperament  as  the  Eskimos,  and  their  grade 
of  culture  was,  when  first  discovered,  about  the  same. 
In  their  own  language  they  call  themselves  Unangan, 
people,  the  name  Aleutes  having  been  given  them  by 
the  Russians.* 

It  may  be  considered  settled  that  their  ancestors 
populated  the  islands  from  the  American  and  not 
the  Asiatic  side.  Not  only  do  their  own  traditions 
assert  this,f  but  it  is  confirmed  by  the  oldest  relics 
of  their  culture,  which  is  Eskimo  in  character,  and 
by  their  language,  which  is  generally  acknowledged 
to  be  a  derivative  of  the  Alaskan  Eskimo.  ^  It  is 
divided  into  two  dialects,  the  Unalashkan  and  Atkan, 
not  very  dissimilar,  and  is  remarkable  for  the  richness 
of  its  verbal  forms.  || 

In  physical  traits  they  are  allied  to  the  Eskimos, 
though  with  rounder  heads,  the  average  of  twenty- 
five  skulls  giving  an  index  of  80.  §  Early  in  this  cen- 
tury they  were  brought  under  the  control  of  Russian 
missionaries,  and  became  partially  civilized  and  at- 
tached to  the  Greek  Church.  In  their  ancient  myths 
their  earliest  ancestor  was  said  to  have  been  the  dog, 

*  Either  from  the  river  Olutora  and  some  islands  near  its  mouth 
(Petroff);  or  from  Eleutes,  a  tribe  in  Siberia,  whom  the  Russians 
thought  they  resembled  (Pinart). 

t  Ivan  Petroff,  in  Trans.  Amer.  Anthrop.  Soc.,  Vol.  II,  p.  90. 

J  Comp.  H.  Winkler,  Ural-Altdische  Volker  und  Sprachen,  s. 
119,  and  Dall,  Contributions  to  N.  Amer.  Ethnology ',  Vol.  I,  p. 
49,  who  states  that  their  tongue  is  distinctly  connected  with  the 
Innuit  of  Alaska. 

||  Dr.  A.  Pfizmaier,  Die  Sprache  der  Aleuten  und  Fuchsinselrt,  s. 
4  (Vienna,  1884). 

§  Dall,  loc.  cit.,  p.  47. 


NEWFOUNDLAND    INDIANS.  6/ 

•which   animal   was  therefore   regarded   with   due   re- 
spect.* 

2.   THE   BEOTHUKS. 

Adjacent  to  the  Labrador  Eskimos  and  the  north- 
ern Algonkins,  upon  the  Island  of  Newfoundland, 
dwelt  the  Beothuks,  or  "  Red  Indians,"  now  extinct, 
who  in  custom  and  language  differed  much  from  their 
neighbors  of  the  mainland.  Although  called  "  red," 
they  are  also  said  to  have  been  unusually  light  in 
complexion,  and  the  term  was  applied  to  them. from 
their  habit  of  smearing  their  bodies  with  a  mixture  of 
grease  and  red  ochre.  They  are  further  described  as 
of  medium  stature,  with  regular  features  and  aquiline 
noses,  the  hair  black  and  the  beard  scanty  or  absent. 

In  several  elements  of  culture  they  had  marked 
differences  from  the  tribes  of  the  adjacent  mainland. 
Their  canoes  were  of  bark  or  of  skins  stretched  on 
frames,  and  were  in  the  shape  of  a  crescent,  so  that 
they  required  ballast  to  prevent  them  from  upsetting. 
The  winter  houses  they  constructed  were  large  conical 
lodges  thirty  or  forty  feet  in  diameter,  having  a  frame 
of  light  poles  upon  which  was  laid  bark  or  skins, 
generally  the  latter.  Hunting  and  fishing  provided 
them  with  food,  and  they  have  left  the  reputation  of 
irreclaimable  savages.  They  had  no  dogs,  and  the  art 
of  pottery  was  unknown  ;  yet  they  were  not  unskilled 
as  artisans,  carving  images  of  wood,  dressing  stone 
for  implements,  and  tanning  deerskins  for  clothing. 
An  examination  of  their  language  discloses  some  words 
borrowed  from  the  Algonkin,  and  slight  coincidences 

*  Ivau  Petroff,  loc.  cit.,  p.  91. 


68  THE  AMERICAN     RACE. 

with  the  Eskimo  dialects,  but  the  main  body  of  the 
idiom  stands  alone,  without  affinities.  Derivation 
was  principally  if  not  exclusively  by  suffixes,  and  the 
general  morphology  seems  somewhat  more  akin  to 
Eskimo  than  Algonkin  examples.* 

3.   THE  ATHABASCANS    (TINNE). 

Few  linguistic  families  on  the  continent  can  com- 
pare in  geographical  distribution  with  that  known  as 
the  Athabascan,  Chepewyan  or  Tinne.  Of  these  syn- 
onyms, I  retain  the  first,  as  that  adopted  by  Busch- 
mann,  who  proved,  by  his  laborious  researches,  the 
kinship  of  its  various  branches.f  These  extend  in- 
terruptedly from  the  Arctic  Sea  to  the  borders  of 
Durango,  in  Mexico,  and  from  Hudson  Bay  to  the 
Pacific. 

In  British  America  this  stock  lies  immediately 
north  of  the  Algonkins,  the  dividing  line  running 
approximately  from  the  mouth  of  the  Churchill  river 
on  Hudson  Bay  to  the  mouth  of  the  Frazer,  on  the 
Pacific.  To  the  north  they  are  in  contact  with  the 
Eskimos  and  to  the  west  with  the  tribes  of  the  Pacific 
coast.  In  this  wide  but  cold  and  barren  area  they  are 
divided  into  a  number  of  bands,  without  coherence, 
and  speaking  dialects  often  quite  unlike.  The  Lou- 
cheux  have  reached  the  mouth  of  the  Mackenzie  river, 

*  Mr.  A.  S.  Gatschet  has  compiled  the  accessible  information 
about  the  Beothuk  language  in  two  articles  in  the  Proceedings  of 
the  American  Philosophical  Society,  1885  and  1886. 

t  J.  C.  E.  Buschmann,  Der  Athapaskische  Sprachslamm,  4to., 
Berlin,  1856,  and  Die.  Vcrwandtschafts-  Verhaltnisse  der  Athapaski- 
schen  Sprachen,  Berlin,  1863. 


ATHABASCAN   BANDS.  69 

the  Kuchin  are  along  the  Yukon,  the  Kenai  on  the 
ocean  about  the  peninsula  that  bears  their  name, 
while  the  Nehaunies,  Secaunies  and  Takullies  are 
among  the  mountains  to  the  south.  The  Sarcees 
lived  about  the  southern  headwaters  of  the  Saskat- 
chewan, while  other  bands  had  crossed  the  mountains 
and  wandered  quite  to  the  Pacific  coast,  where  they 
appear  as  Umpquas  near  Salem,  Oregon  ;  as  Tututenas 
on  Rogue  river ;  and  in  California  as  Hupas,  on  and 
about  Trinity  river.  These  are  but  a  small  fraction 
of  the  great  southern  migration  of  this  stock.  The 
Navajos  belong  to  it,  and  the  redoubted  Apaches,  who 
extended  their  war  parties  far  into  Mexico,  and  who 
were  the  main  agents  in  destroying  the  civilization 
which  ages  ago  began  to  reveal  fair  promise  in  the 
valleys  of  the  Gila  and  its  affluents,  and  who  up  to 
very  recent  years  defied  alike  the  armies  of  both 
Mexico  and  the  United  States.  Their  southern  mi- 
grations beyond  the  valley  of  the  Gila  probably  do  not 
date  far  back,  that  is,  much  beyond  the  conquest. 
Although  the  Mexican  census  of  1880  puts  the  Mexi- 
can Apaches  at  ten  thousand,  no  such  number  can  be 
located.  Orozco  y  Berra  mentions  one  of  their 
tribes  in  Chihuahua,  which  he  calls  Tobosos ;  but 
Spanish  authors  refer  to  these  as  living  in  New  Mex- 
ico in  1583.  The  only  Apache  band  now  known  to 
be  in  Mexico  are  the  Janos  or  Janeros  in  Chihuahua, 
made  up  of  Lipans  and  Mescaleros.  (Henshaw.) 

Wherever  found,  the  members  of  this  group  pre- 
sent a  certain  family  resemblance.  In  appearance 
they  are  tall  and  strong,  the  forehead  low  with  prom- 
inent superciliary  ridges,  the  eyes  slightly  oblique, 


70  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

the  nose  prominent  but  wide  toward  the  base,  the 
mouth  large,  the  hands  and  feet  small.  Their  strength 
and  endurance  are  often  phenomenal,  but  in  the  North 
at  least  their  longevity  is  slight,  few  living  beyond 
fifty.  Intellectually  they  rank  below  most  of  their 
neighbors,  and  nowhere  do  they  appear  as  fosterers 
of  the  germs  of  civilization.  Where,  as  among  the 
Navajos,  we  find  them  having  some  repute  for  the 
mechanical  arts,  it  turns  out  that  this  is  owing  to 
having  captured  and  adopted  the  members  of  more 
gifted  tribes.  Their  temperament  is  inclined  to  be 
gloomy  and  morose  ;  yet  in  spite  of  their  apparent 
stolidity  they  are  liable  to  panic  terrors,  to  epidemic 
neuroses,  temporary  hallucinations  and  manias — a 
condition  not  at  all  rare  among  peoples  of  inferior 
culture.* 

Nowhere  do  we  find  among  them  any  form  of  gov- 
ernment. Their  chiefs  are  chosen  without  formality, 
either  on  account  of  their  daring  in  war  or  for  their 
generosity  in  distributing  presents.  The  office  is  not 
hereditary,  there  is  rarely  even  any  war  chief,  their 
campaigns  being  merely  hurried  raids.  A  singular 
difference  exists  as  to  their  gentile  systems,  and  their 
laws  of  consanguinity.  Usually  it  is  counted  in  the 
female  line  only.  Thus  among  the  Takullies  of  the 
north  a  son  does  not  consider  his  father  any  relation, 
but  only  his  mother  and  her  people.  When  a  man 
dies,  all  his  property  passes  to  his  wife's  family.  The 
totems  are  named  from  animals,  and  as  usual  a  wife 
must  be  selected  from  another  totem.  This  does  not 

.  *  See  Mgr.  Henry  Faraud,  Dix-huit  Ans  chez  les  Sauvages,  pp. 
345,  etc.     (Paris,  1866.)     Petitot,  Les  Dhi&  Dindjti,  p.  32. 


ATHABASCAN   CUSTOMS.  71 

stand  in  the  way  of  a  son  being  united  to  his  father's 
sister,  and  such  a  marriage  is  often  effected  for  prop- 
erty reasons.  Among  the  Sarcees  the  respect  for  a 
mother-in-law  is  so  great  that  her  son-in-law  dares 
not  sit  at  a  meal  with  her,  or  even  touch  her,  without 
paying  a  fine.  Among  the  Navajo  and  Apache  tribes 
the  son  also  follows  the  gens  of  the  mother,  while  in 
the  Umpqua  and  Tutu  branches  in  Oregon  he  belongs 
to  that  of  his  father.  In  all  the  southern  tribes  the 
gens  is  named  from  a  place,  not  an  animal.*  Mar- 
riage is  polygamous  at  will,  wives  are  obtained  by 
purchase,  and  among  the  Slave  Indians  the  tie  is  so 
lax  that  friends  will  occasionally  exchange  wives 
as  a  sign  of  amity.  Usually  the  position  of  the 
woman  is  abject,  and  marital  affection  is  practically 
unknown ;  although  it  is  said  that  the  Nehaunies,  a 
tribe  of  eastern  Alaska,  at  one  time  obeyed  a  female 
chief. 

The  arts  were  in  a  primitive  condition.  Utensils 
were  of  wood,  horn  or  stone,  though  the  Takully 
women  manufactured  a  coarse  pottery,  and  also  spun 
and  wove  yarn  from  the  hair  of  the  mountain  goat. 
Agriculture  was  not  practised  either  in  the  north  or 
south,  the  only  exception  being  the  Navajos  and  with 
them  the  inspiration  came  from  other  stocks,  f  The 
Kuchin  of  the  Yukon  make  excellent  bark  canoes,  and 

*  See  George  M.  Dawson,  in  An.  Rep.  of  the  Geol.  Survey  of  > 
Canada,  1887,  p.  191,  sq.  ;  Washington  Matthews  and  J.  G.  Bourke, 
in  Jour,  of  Amer.  Folk-Lore,  1890,  p.  89,  sq. 

•f  The  best  blanket-makers,  smiths  and  other  artisans  among  the 
Navajos  are  descendants  of  captives  from  the  Zuni  and  other 
pueblos.  John  G.  Bourke,  Journal  of  American  Folk-Lore,  1890, 
p.  115. 


72  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

both  they  and  their  neighbors  live  in  skin  tents  of 
neatly  dressed  hides.  Many  of  the  tribes  of  the  far 
north  are  improvident  in  both  clothing  and  food,  and 
cannibalism  was  not  at  all  uncommon  among  them. 

The  most  cultured  of  their  bands  were  the  Navajos, 
whose  name  is  said  to  signify  "  large  cornfields," 
from  their  extensive  agriculture.  When  the  Span- 
iards first  met  them  in  1541  they  were  tillers  of  the 
soil,  erected  large  granaries  for  their  crops,  irrigated 
their  fields  by  artificial  water  courses  or  acequias,  and 
lived  in  substantial  dwellings,  partly  underground  ; 
but  they  had  not  then  learned  the  art  of  weaving  the 
celebrated  "  Navajo  blankets,"  that  being  a  later  ac- 
quisition of  their  artisans.* 

In  their  religions  there  was  the  belief  in  deified  nat- 
ural forces  and  in  magic  that  we  find  usually  at  their 
stage  of  culture.  The  priests  or  shamans  were  re- 
garded with  fear,  and  often  controlled  the  counsels  of 
the  tribe.  One  of  their  prevalent  myths  was  that  of 
the  great  thunder-bird  often  identified  with  the  raven. 
On  the  Churchill  river  it  was  called  Idi,  and  the 
myth  related  that  from  its  brooding  on  the  primeval 
waters  the  land  was  brought  forth.  The  myth  is 
found  too  widespread  to  be  other  than  genuine. 
The  Sarcees  seem  to  have  had  some  form  of  solar 
worship,  as  they  called  the  sun  Our  Father  and  the 
earth  Our  Mother. 

The  Navajos,  who  have  no  reminiscence  of  their 
ancestral  home  in  the  north,  locate  the  scene  of  their 
creation  in  the  San  Juan  mountains,  and  its  date 

*A.  F.  Bandelier,  Indians  of  the  Southwestern  United  States, 
pp.  175-6  (Boston,  1890). 


ATHABASCAN  DIALECTS.  73 

about  seven  centuries  ago.  Their  story  is  that  the 
first  human  pair  were  formed  of  the  meal  of  maize 
brought  by  the  gods  from  the  cliff  houses  in  the 
canons.* 

The  Athabascan  dialects  are  usually  harsh  and  dif- 
ficult of  enunciation.  In  reducing  them  to  writing, 
sixty-three  characters  have  to  be  called  on  to  render 
the  correct  sounds,  f  There  is  an  oral  literature  of 
songs  and  chants,  many  of  which  have  been  preserved 
by  the  missionaries.  The  Hupas  of  California  had 
extended  their  language  and  forced  its  adoption 
among  the  half-dozen  neighboring  tribes  whom  they 
had  reduced  to  the  condition  of  tributaries.^: 

ATHABASCAN   LINGUISTIC  STOCK. 

Apaches,  in  Arizona,  Chihuahua,  Durango,  etc. 

Ariquipas,  in  southern  Arizona. 

Atnahs,  on  Copper  river,  Alaska. 

Beaver  Indians,  see  Sarcees. 

Chepewyans,  north  of  the  Chipeways. 

Chiricahuas,  in  southern  Arizona. 

Coyoteros,  in  southern  Arizona. 

Hupas,  in  California,  on  Trinity  river. 

Janos,  in  Chihuahua,  near  Rio  Grande. 

Jicarillas,  in  northern  New  Mexico. 

Kenais,  on  and  near  Kenai  peninsula,  Alaska. 

Kuchins,  on  Yukon  and  Copper  rivers,  Alaska. 

Lipanes,  near  mouth  of  Rio  Grande  (properly,  Tpa-nde). 

Loucheux,  on  lower  Mackenzie  river  ;  most  northern  tribe. 

*  Dr.  Washington  Matthews,  in  Journal  of  American  Folk-Lore, 
1890,  p.  90. 

t  The  student  of  this  language  finds  excellent  material  in  the 
Dictionnaire  de  la  Langue  Dene-Dindjie,  par  E.  Petitot  (folio, 
Paris,  1876),  in  which  three  dialects  are  presented. 

J  Stephen  Powers,  Tribes  of  California,  p.  72,  76  (Washington, 
1877). 


74  THE  AMERICAN   RACE. 

Mescaleros,  in  New  Mexico,  W.  of  Rio  Grande. 
Montagnais,  north  of  Chipeways. 
Nahaunies,  on  Stickine  and  Talton  rivers,  Alaska. 
Navajos,  northern  New  Mexico  and  Arizona. 
Sarcees,  on  upper  Saskatchewan  and  at  Alberta. 
Sicaunies,  on  upper  Peach  river. 
Slaves,  on  upper  Mackenzie  river.  .    . 

Tacullies,  head  waters  of  the  Fraser  river,  Brit.  Col. 
Tinn^  synonym  of  Athabascan. 
Tututenas,  on  Rogue  river,  Oregon. 
Umpquas,  Pacific  coast  near  Salem,  Oregon. 

j     '     • 

4.   THE   ALGONKLNS. 

The  whole  of  the  north  Atlantic  coast,  between 
Cape  Fear  and  Cape  Hatteras,  was  occupied  at  the 
discovery  by  the  Algonkin  stock.  Their  northern 
limit  reached  far  into  Labrador,  where  they  were  in 
immediate  contact  with  the  Eskimos,  and  along  the 
southern  shores  of  Hudson  Bay,  and  its  western  littoral 
as  far  north  as  Churchill  river.  In  this  vicinity  lived 
the  Crees,  one  of  the  most  important  tribes,  who  re- 
tained the  language  of  the  stock  in  its  purest  form. 
West  of  them  were  the  Ottawas  and  Chipeways, 
closely  allied  in  dialect,  and  owners  of  most  of  the 
shores  of  lakes  Michigan  and  Superior.  Beyond 
these  again,  and  separated  from  them  by  tribes  of 
Dakota  stock,  were  the  Blackfeet,  whose  lands  ex- 
tended to  the  very  summit  of  the  Rockies.  South  of 
the  St.  Lawrence  were  the  Abnakis  or  Eastlanders, 
under  which  general  name  were  included  the  Mic- 
macs,  Echemins  and  others.  The  whole  of  the  area 
of  New  England  was  occupied  by  Algonkins,  whose 
near  relatives  were  the  Mohegans  of  the  lower  Hud- 
son. These  were  in  place  and  dialect  near  to  the 


TRAITS  OF  THE  ALGONKINS.  75 

Lenap6s  of  the  Delaware  valley,  and  to  the  vagrant 
Shawnees  ;  while  the  Nanticokes  of  Maryland,  the 
Powhatans  of  Virginia  and  the  Pamticokes  of  the 
Carolinas  diverged  more  and  more  from  the  purity  of 
the  original  language. 

These  and  many  other  tribes  scattered  over  this 
vast  area  were  related,  all  speaking  dialects  mani- 
festly from  the  same  source.  Where  their  ancient 
home  was  situated  has  been  the  subject  of  careful  in- 
vestigations, the  result  of  which  may  be  said  to  be 
that  traditions,  archaeology  and  linguistic  analysis 
combine  to  point  to  the  north  and  the  east,  in  other 
words,  to  some  spot  north  of  the  St.  Lawrence  and 
east  of  Lake  Ontario,  as  the  original  home  of  the 
stock. 

The  Algonkins  may  be  taken  as  typical  specimens 
of  the  American  race.  They  are  fully  up  to  the 
average  stature  of  the  best  developed  European  na- 
tions, muscular  and  symmetrical.  The  distinguished 
anthropologist  Quetelet  measured  with  great  care  six 
members  of  the  Chipeway  tribe,  and  pronounced 
them  as  equaling  in  all  physical  points  the  best  spec- 
imens of  the  Belgians.*  Their  skulls  are  generally 
dolichocephalic,  but  not  uniformly  so.  We  have  in 
the  collection  of  the  Academy  seventy-seven  Algon- 
kin  crania,  of  which  fifty-three  are  dolichocephalic, 
fourteen  mesocephalic,  and  ten  brachycephalic.f  The 

*  "  On  voit  que  leur  conformation  est  a  pen  pres  exactement  le 
notre."  Quetelet,  "  Sur  les  IndiensO-jtb-be-was,"  in  Bull.Acad, 
Royale  de  Belgique,  Tome  XIII. 

t  I  refer  to  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,  Philadelphia.  The 
numerous  measurements  of  skulls  of  New  England  Algonkins  by 
Lucien  Carr,  show  them  to  be  mesocephalic  tending  to  dolicho- 


76  THE  AMERICAN   RACE. 

eyes  are  horizontal,  the  nose  thin  and  prominent,  the 
malar  bones  well  marked,  the  lips  thin.  The  color 
is  a  coppery  brown,  the  hair  black  and  straight, 
though  I  have  seen  a  slight  waviness  in  some  who 
claim  purity  of  blood.  The  hands  and  feet  are  small, 
the  voice  rich  and  strong.  Physical  endurance  is 
very  great,  and  under  favorable  circumstances  the 
longevity  is  fully  up  to  that  of  any  other  race. 

The  totemic  system  prevailed  among  the  Algonkin 
tribes,  with  descent  in  the  female  line  ;  but  we  do  not 
find  among  them  the  same  communal  life  as  among 
the  Iroquois.  Only  rarely  do  we  encounter  the  "  long 
house,"  occupied  by  a  number  of  kindred  families. 
Among  the  Lenapes,  for  example,  this  was  entirely 
unknown,  each  married  couple  having  its  own  resi- 
dence. The  gens  was  governed  by  a  chief,  who  was 
in  some  cases  selected  by  the  heads  of  the  other 
gentes.  The  tribe  had  as  permanent  ruler  a  "  peace 
chief,"  selected  from  a  particular  gens,  also  by  the 
heads  of  the  other  gentes.  His  authority  was  not 
absolute,  and,  as  usual,  did  not  extend  to  any  matter 
concerning  the  particular  interests  of  any  one  gens. 
When  war  broke  out,  the  peace  chief  had  no  concern 
in  it,  the  campaign  being  placed  in  charge  of  a  "  war 
chief,"  who  had  acquired  a  right  to  the  position  by 
his  prominent  prowess  and  skill. 

While  the  Mohegans  built  large  communal  houses, 
the  Lenap£s  and  most  of  the  eastern  Algonkins  con- 
structed small  wattled  huts  with  rounded  tops, 

cephaly,  orthognathic,  mesorhine  and  megasetne.  See  his  article, 
"  Notes  on  the  Crania  of  New  England  Indians,"  in  the  Anniver- 
sary Memoirs  of  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History,  1880. 


ARTS   OF   THE    ALGONKINS.  77 

thatched  with  the  leaves  of  the  Indian  corn  or  with 
sweet  flags.  These  were  built  in  groups  and  sur- 
rounded with  palisades  of  stakes  driven  into  the 
ground.  In  summer,  light  brush  tents  took  the  place 
of  these.  Agriculture  was  by  no  means  neglected. 
The  early  explorers  frequently  refer  to  large  fields  of 
maize,  squash  and  tobacco  under  cultivation  by  the 
natives.  The  manufacture  of  pottery  was  wide- 
spread, although  it  was  heavy  and  coarse.  Mats 
woven  of  bark  and  rushes,  deer  skins  dressed  with 
skill,  feather  garments,  and  utensils  of  wood  and 
stone,  are  mentioned  by  the  early  voyagers.  Copper 
was  dug  from  veins  in  New  Jersey  and  elsewhere  and 
hammered  into  ornaments,  arrowheads,  knives  and 
chisels.  It  was,  however,  treated  as  a  stone,  and  the 
process  of  smelting  it  was  unknown.  The  arrow  and 
spear  heads  were  preferably  of  quartz,  jasper  and 
chert,  while  the  stone  axes  were  of  diorite,  hard 
sandstone,  and  similar  tough  and  close-grained  ma- 
terial.* An  extensive  commerce  in  these  and  similar 
articles  was  carried  on  with  very  distant  points.  The 
red  pipe-stone  was  brought  to  the  Atlantic  coast  from 
the  Coteau  des  Prairies,  and  even  the  black  slate  highly 
ornamented  pipes  of  the  Haidah  on  Vancouver  Island 
have  been  exhumed  from  graves  of  Lenape  Indians. 

Nowhere  else  north  of  Mexico  was  the  system  of 
picture  writing  developed  so  far  as  among  the  Algon- 
kins,  especially  by  the  Lenapes  and  the  Chipeways. 
It  had  passed  from  the  representative  to  the  symbolic 
stage,  and  was  extensively  employed  to  preserve  the 

*  The  best  work  on  this  subject  is  Dr.  C.  C.  Abbott's  Primitive 
Industry  (Salem,  1881). 


78  THE    AMERICAN   RACE. 

national  history  and  the  rites  of  the  secret  societies. 
The  figures  were  scratched  or  painted  on  pieces  of 
bark  or  slabs  of  wood,  and  as  the  color  of  the  paint 
was  red,  these  were  sometimes  called  "  red  sticks." 
One  such,  the  curious  Walum  Olurn,  or  "  Red 
Score,"  of  the  Lenapes,  containing  the  traditional 
history  of  the  tribe,  I  was  fortunate  enough  to  rescue 
from  oblivion,  and  have  published  it  with  a  transla- 
tion.* The  contents  of  others  relating  to  the  history 
of  the  Chipeways  (Ojibways)  have  also  been  partly 
preserved. 

The  religion  of  all  the  Algonkin  tribes  presented  a 
distinct  similarity.  It  was  based  on  the  worship  of 
Light,  especially  in  its  concrete  manifestations,  as  the 
sun  and  fire  ;  of  the  Four  Winds,  as  typical  of  the 
cardinal  points,  and  as  the  rain  bringers ;  and  of  the 
Totemic  Animal.  Their  myths  were  numerous,  the 
central  figure  being  the  national  hero-god  Manibozho 
or  Michabo,  often  identified  with  the  rabbit,  appar- 
ently from  a  similarity  in  the  words.  He  was  the 
beneficent  sage  who  taught  them  laws  and  arts,  who 
gave  them  the  maize  and  tobacco,  and  who  on  his  de- 
parture promised  to  return  and  inaugurate  the  Golden 
Age.  In  other  myths  he  is  spoken  of  as  the  creator 
of  the  visible  world  and  the  first  father  of  the  race. 
Along  with  the  rites  in  his  worship  were  others  di- 
rected to  the  Spirits  of  the  Winds,  who  bring  about 
the  change  of  seasons,  and  t6  local  divinities. 

*  The  Lendpe  and  their  Legends  ;  with  the  Complete  Text  and 
Symbols  of  the  Walum  Olum,  and  an  Inquiry  into  its  Authenticity. 
By  Datiiel  G.  Brinton,  Philadelphia,  1885  (Vol.  V.  of  Brinton's 
Library  of  Aboriginal  American  Literature)* 


BLACKFEET   AND   LENAPES.  79 

The  dead  as  a  rule  were  buried,  each  gens  having 
its  own  cemetery.  Some  tribes  preserved  the  bones 
with  scrupulous  care,  while  in  Virginia  the  bodies  of 
persons  of  importance  were  dried  and  deposited  in 
houses  set  apart  for  the  purpose. 

The  tribe  that  wandered  the  furthest  from  the 
primitive  home  of  the  stock  were  the  Blackfeet,  or 
Sisika,  which  word  has  this  signification.  It  is  de- 
rived from  their  earlier  habitat  in  the  valley  of  the 
Red  river  of  the  north,  where  the  soil  was  dark  and 
blackened  their  moccasins.  Their  bands  include  the 
Blood  or  Kenai  and  the  Piegan  Indians.  Half  a  cen- 
tury ago  they  were  at  the  head  of  a  confederacy  which 
embraced  these  and  also  the  Sarcee  (Tinne)  and  the 
Atsina  (Caddo)  nations,  and  numbered  about  thirty 
thousand  souls.  They  have  an  interesting  mythology 
and  an  unusual  knowledge  of  the  constellations.* 

The  Lenapes  were  an  interesting  tribe  who  occupied 
the  valley  of  the  Delaware  river  and  the  area  of  the 
present  State  of  New  Jersey.  For  some  not  very  clear 
reason  they  were  looked  upon  by  the  other  members 
of  the  stock  as  of  the  most  direct  lineage,  and  were 
referred  to  as  "  grandfather."  Their  dialect,  which 
has  been  preserved  by  the  Moravian  Missionaries,  is 
harmonious  in  sound,  but  has  varied  markedly  from 
the  purity  of  the  Cree.f  It  has  lost,  for  instance,  the 

*  See  Horatio  Hale,  "  Report  on  the  Blackfeet"  in  Proc.  of  the 
Brit.  Assoc.  for  the  Adv.  of  Science,  1885. 

t  See  Len&pe- English  Dictionary :  From  an  anonymous  MS.  in 
the  Archives  of  the  Moravian  Chttrch  at  Bethlehem,  Pa.  Edited 
with  additions  by  Daniel  G.  Brinton,  M.  D.,  and  Rev.  Albert  Se- 
qaqkind  Anthony.  Published  by  the  Historical  Society  of  Penn- 
sylvania. Philadelphia,  iSSS.  Quarto,  pp.  236. 


80  THE    AMERICAN   RACE. 

peculiar  vowel  change  which  throws  the  verb  from 
the  definite  to  the  indefinite  form.  The  mythology  of 
the  Lenape's,  which  has  been  preserved  in  fragments, 
presents  the  outlines  common  to  the  stock. 

AI.GONKIN    LINGUISTIC  STOCK. 

Abnakis,  Nova  Scotia  and  S.  bank  of  St.  Lawrence. 

Arapahoes,  head  waters  of  Kansas  river. 

Blackfeet,  head  waters  of  Missouri  river. 

Cheyennes,  upper  waters  of  Arkansas  river. 

Chipeways,  shores  of  Lake  Superior. 

Crees,  southern  shores  of  Hudson  Bay. 

Delaware*,  see  Lendpes. 

Illinois,  on  the  Illinois  river. 

Kaskaskias,  on  Mississippi,  below  Illinois  river. 

Kikapoos,  on  upper  Illinois  river. 

Lendpes,  on  the  Delaware  river. 

Meliseets,  in  Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick. 

Miamis,  between  Miami  and  Wabash  rivers. 

Micmacs,  in  Nova  Scotia. 

Menomonees,  near  Green  Bay. 

Mohegans,  on  lower  Hudsonjijyer. 

Manhattans,  about  New  Yotkj^y. 

Nanticokcs,  on  Chesapeake  Bay. 

Ottawas,  on  the  Ottawa  river  and  S.  of  L.  Huron. 

Pampticokes,  near  Cape  Hatteras. 

Passamaquoddies,  on  Schoodic  river. 

Piankishaws,  on  middle  Ohio  river. 

Piegans,  see  Blackfeet. 

Pottawattomies,  S.  of  Lake  Michigan. 

Sauteux,  see  Crees. 

Sacs  and  Foxes,  on  Sac  river. 

Secoffies,  in  Labrador. 

Shawnees,  on  Tennessee  river. 

Weas>  near  the  Piankishaws. 


THE   FIVE   NATIONS.  8l 

5.   THE   IROQUOIS. 

When  the  French  first  explored  the  St.  Lawrence 
River,  they  found  both  its  banks,  in  the  vicinity 
where  the  cities  of  Montreal  and  Quebec  now  stand, 
peopled  by  the  Iroquois,  This  tribe  also  occupied  all 
the  area  of  New  York  state  (except  the  valley  of 
the  lower  Hudson),  where  it  was  known  as  the  Five 
Nations.  West  of  these  were  the  Hurons  and  Neu- 
tral Nation  in  Canada,  and  the  Eries  south  of  Lake 
Erie,  while  to  the  south  of  the  Five  Nations,  in  the 
valley  of  the  Susquehanna  and  pushing  their  out- 
posts along  the  western  shore  of  Chesapeake  Bay  to 
the  Potomac,  were  the  Andastes  and  Conestogas, 
called  also  Susquehannocks.  Still  further  south, 
about  the  head-waters  of  the  Roanoke  River,  dwelt 
the  Tuscaroras,  who  afterwards  returned  north  and 
formed  the  sixth  nation  in  the  league.  West  of  the 
Apalachians,  on  the  umjer  waters  of  the  Tennessee 
River,  lived  the  Che^^^Ky  who,  by  their  tradition, 
had  moved  down  fr^JPne  upper  Ohio,  and  who,  if 
they  were  not  a  branch  of  the  same  family,  were  af- 
filiated to  it  by  many  ancient  ties  of  blood  and  lan- 
guage. The  latest  investigations  of  the  Bureau  of 
Ethnology  result  in  favor  of  considering  them  a 
branch,  though  a  distant  one,  of  the  Iroquois  line. 

The  stock  was  wholly  an  inland  one,  at  no  point 
reaching  the  ocean.  According  to  its  most  ancient 
traditions  we  are  justified  in  locating  its  priscan 
home  in  the  district  between  the  lower  St.  Lawrence 
and  Hudson  Bay.  If  we  may  judge  from  its  cranial 
forms,  its  purest  representatives  were  toward  the 
east.  The  skulls  of  the  Five  Nations,  as  well  as 
6 


82  THE  AMERICAN   RACE. 

those  of  the  Tuscaroras  and  Cherokees,  are  distinctly 
dolichocephalic,  and  much  alike  in  other  respects, 
while  those  of  the  Hurons  are  brachycephalic.* 
Physically  the  stock  is  most  superior,  unsurpassed 
by  any  other  on  the  continent,  and  I  may  even  say 
by  any  other  people  in  the  world ;  for  it  stands  on 
record  that  the  five  companies  (500  men)  recruited 
from  the  Iroquois  of  New  York  and  Canada  during 
our  civil  war  stood  first  on  the  list  among  all  the  re- 
cruits of  our  army  for  height,  vigor  and  corporeal 
symmetry. 

In  intelligence  also  their  position  must  be  placed 
among  the  highest.  It  was  manifested  less  in  their 
culture  than  in  their  system  of  government.  About 
the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century  the  Onondaga 
chief,  Hiawatha,  succeeded  in  completing  the  famous 
league  which  bound  together  his  nation  with  the 
Mohawks,  Oneidas,  Senec^^and  Cayugas  into  one 
federation  of  offence  and  qdkrfcc.  "  The  system  he 
devised  was  to  be  not  a  ^Jpand  transitory  league, 
but  a  permanent  government.  While  each  nation 
was  to  retain  its  own  council  and  management  of 
local  affairs,  the  general  control  was  to  be  lodged  in 
a  federal  senate,  composed  of  representatives  to  be 
elected  by  each  nation,  holding  office  during  good 
behavior  and  aknowledged  as  ruling  chiefs  through- 
out the  whole  confederacy.  Still  further,  and  more 
remarkably,  the  federation  was  not  to  be  a  limited 
one.  It  was  to  be  indefinitely  expansible.  The 

*  J.  Aitkein  Meigs,  "  Cranial  Forms  of  the  American  Aborigines," 
in  Proceedings  of  the  Acad.  of  Nat.  Sciences  of  Philadelphia,  May, 
1866. 


HIAWATHA'S  PLAN.  83 

avowed    design    of   its   proposer   was   to  abolish   war 
altogether."  * 

Certainly  this  scheme  was  one  of  the  most  far- 
sighted,  and  in  its  aim  beneficent,  which  any  states- 
man has  ever  designed  for  man.  With  the  Iroquois 
it  worked  well.  They  included  in  the  league  por-^ 
tions  of  the  Neutral  Nation  and  the  Tuscaroras,  and 
for  centuries  it  gave  them  the  supremacy  among  all 
their  neighbors.  The  league  was  primarily  based 
upon  or  at  least  drew  much  of  its  strength  from  the 
system  of  gentes  ;  this  prevailed  both  among  the 
Iroquois  and  Cherokees,  descent  being  traced  in  the 
female  line.  Indeed,  it  was  from  a  study  of  the 
Iroquois  system  that  the  late  Mr.  Morgan  formed  his 
theory  that  ancient  society  everywhere  passed 
through  a  similar  stage  in  attaining  civilization. 

It  is  consonant  with  their  advanced  sentiments 
that  among  the  Iroquois  women  had  more  than  ordi- 
nary respect.  They  ^tad  represented  by  a  special 
speaker  in  the  councils^f  the  tribe,  and  were  author- 
ized to  conduct  negotiations  looking  towards  making 
peace  with  an  enemy.  Among  the  Conestogas  we 
have  the  instance  of  a  woman  being  the  recognized 
"  Queen "  of  the  tribe.  With  the  Wyandots,  the 
council  of  each  gens  was  composed  exclusively  of 
women.  They  alone  elected  the  chief  of  the  gens, 
who  represented  its  interests  in  the  council  of  the 
tribe.f 

*  Horatio  Hale,  The  Iroquois  Book  of  Rites,  pp.  21,  22.  (Phila- 
delphia, 1883.  Vol.  II.  of  Brinton's  Library  of  Aboriginal  Amer- 
ican Literature.} 

t  J.  W.  Powell,  First  Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  p.  61. 
(Washington,  1881.) 


84  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

In  Sundry  other  respects  they  displayed  an  intelli- 
gent activity.  In  many  localities  they  were  agri- 
cultural, cultivating  maize,  beans  and  tobacco,  build- 
ing large  communal  houses  of  logs,  fortifying  their 
villages  with  palisades,  and  making  excellent  large 
canoes  of  birch  bark.  According  to  traditions,  which 
are  supported  by  recent  archaeological  researches,  the 
Cherokees  when  they  were  upon  the  Kanawha  and 
Ohio  had  large  fields  under  cultivation,  and  erected 
mounds  as  sites  for  their  houses  and  for  burial  purposes. 
When  first  encountered  in  East  Tennessee  they  con- 
structed long  communal  houses  like  the  Five  Nations, 
had  large  fields  of  corn,  built  excellent  canoes  and 
manufactured  pottery  of  superior  style  and  finish. 
Although  no  method  of  recording  thought  had  ac- 
quired any  development  among  the  Iroquois,  they 
had  many  legends,  myths  and  formal  harangues 
which  they  handed  down  with  great  minuteness  from 
generation  to  generation.  ^*Irr  remembering  them 
they  were  aided  by  the  wampum  belts  and  strings, 
which  served  by  the  arrangement  and  design  of  the 
beads  to  fix  certain  facts  and  expressions  in  their 
minds.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  of  these  ancient 
chants  has  been  edited  with  a  translation  and  copious 
notes  by  Horatio  Hale.*  The  Cherokees  had  a  simi- 
lar national  song  which  was  repeated  solemnly  each 
year  at  the  period  of  the  green  corn  dance.  Frag- 
ments of  it  have  been  obtained  quite  recently. 

The  Iroquois  myths  refer  to  the  struggle  of  the  first 
two  brothers,  the  dark  twin  and  the  white,  a  familiar 
symbolism  in  which  we  see  the  personification  of  the 

*  The  Iroquois  Book  of  Rites,  referred  to  above. 


CHOCTAW   LEGENDS.  85 

light    and   darkness,    and    the   struggle   of   day   and 
night. 

IROgUOIS  LINGUISTIC  STOCK. 

Andastes,  see  Conestogas. 
Cayugas,  south  of  Lake  Ontario. 
Cherokees,  on  upper  Tennessee  river. 
Conestogas,  on  lower  Susquehanna, 
JSries,  south  of  Lake  Erie. 
Hurons,  see  Wyandots. 
Mohawks,  on  Lakes  George  and  Champlain. 
Neutral  Nation,  west  of  the  Niagara  river. 
Oneidas,  south  of  Lake  Ontario. 
Onondagas,  south  of  Lake  Ontario. 
Senecas,  south  of  Lake  Ontario. 
Susquehannocks,  on  lower  Susquehanna, 

Tuscaroras,  in  Virginia. 

Wyandots,  between  Lakes  Ontario  and  Huron. 

6.   THE    CHAHTA-MUSKOKIS. 

The  various  nations  who  are  classed  under  the 
Muskoki  stock  occupie<S-4the  broad  and  pleasant  low- 
lands stretching  from  trie  terminal  hills  of  the  Apa- 
lachian  Mountains  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  from 
the  Atlantic  to  the  Mississippi,  and  even  beyond  that 
mighty  barrier.  The  remains  of  a  few  other  stocks 
in  the  eastern  portion  of  this  area  indicate  that  the 
Muskokis  were  not  its  original  occupants,  and  this 
was  also  their  own  opinion.  Their  legends  referred 
to  the  west  and  the  north-west  as  the  direction 
whence  their  ancestors  had  wandered ;  and  the 
Choctaw  legend  which  speaks  of  Nani  Waya,  the 
Bending  Mount,  a  large  artificial  mound  in  Winston 
county,  Mississippi,  as  the  locality  where  their  first 
parents  saw  the  light,  is  explained  by  another  which 


86  THE    AMERICAN   RACE. 

describes  it  as  the  scene  of  their  separation  from  the 
Chickasaws. 

Of  the  main  division  of  the  stock,  the  Choctaws 
lived  furthest  west,  bordering  upon  the  Mississippi, 
the  Chickasaws  in  the  centre,  and  the  Creeks  on  the 
Atlantic  slope.  The  Seminoles  were  a  branch  of  the 
latter,  who,  in  the  last  century,  moved  into  Florida  ; 
but  it  is  probable  that  the  whole  of  the  west  coast  of 
that  peninsula  was  under  the  control  of  the  Creeks 
from  the  earliest  period  of  which  we  have  any 
knowledge  of  it. 

The  various  members  of  this  stock  presented  much 
diversity  in  appearance.  The  Creeks  were  tall  and 
slender,  the  Chickasaws  short  and  heavy ;  the  skulls 
of  both  have  a  tendency  to  dolichocephaly,  but  with 
marked  exceptions,  and  the  custom  among  many  of 
them  to  deform  the  head  artificially  in  various  ways 
adds  to  the  difficulties  of  the  craniologist.*  The 
color  of  all  is  called  a  dark  cinnamon. 

The  gentile  system  with  descent  in  the  female  line 
prevailed  everywhere.  The  Creeks  counted  more 
than  twenty  gentes,  the  Choctaws  and  Chickasaws 
about  twelve,  united  in  phratries  of  four.  In  the 
towns  each  gens  lived  in  a  quarter  by  itself,  and 
marriage  within  the  gens  was  strictly  prohibited. 
Each  had  its  own  burying  place  and  sepulchral 
mound  where  the  bones  of  the  deceased  were  deposited 
after  they  had  been  cleaned.  The  chief  of  each 
town  was  elected  for  life  from  a  certain  gens,  but  the 

*  There  are  twenty-one  skulls  alleged  to  be  of  Muskoki  origin  in 
the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,  Philadelphia,  of  which  fifteen 
have  a  cephalic  index  below  80. 


MOUND-BUILDING  TRIBES.  87 

office  was  virtually  hereditary,  as  it  passed  to  his 
nephew  on  his  wife's  side  unless  there  were  cogent 
reasons  against  it.  The  chief,  or  miko,  as  he  was 
called,  ruled  with  the  aid  of  a  council,  and  together 
they  appointed  the  "  war  chief,"  who  obtained  the 
post  solely  on  the  ground  of  merit.  Instances  of  a 
woman  occupying  the  position  of  head  chief  were 
not  unknown,  and  seem  to  have  been  recalled  with 
pleasure  by  the  tribe.* 

The  early  culture  of  these  tribes  is  faithfully  de- 
picted in  the  records  of  the  campaign  of  Hernando 
De  Soto,  who  journeyed  through  their  country  in 
1540.  He  found  them  cultivating  extensive  fields 
of  maize,  beans,  squashes  and  tobacco ;  dwelling  in 
permanent  towns  with  well-constructed  wooden  edi- 
fices, many  of  which  were  situated  on  high  mounds 
of  artificial  construction,  and  using  for  weapons  and 
utensils  stone  implements  of  great  beauty  of  work- 
manship. The  descriptions  of  later  travellers  and  the 
antiquities  still  existing  prove  that  these  accounts 
were  not  exaggerated.  The  early  Muskokis  were  in 
the  highest  culture  of  the  stone  age  ;  nor  were  they 
deficient  wholly  in  metals.  They  obtained  gold  from 
the  uriferous  sands  of  the  Nacoochee  and  other 
streams  and  many  beautiful  specimens  of  their  orna- 
ments in  it  are  still  to  be  seen. 

Their  artistic  development  was  strikingly  similar 
to  that  of  the  "  mound-builders  "  who  have  left  such 
interesting  remains  in  the  Ohio  valley ;  and  there  is, 
to  say  the  least,  a  strong  probability  that  they  are  the 

*  Examples  given  by  William  Bartram  in  his  MSS.  in  the  Penn-. 
sylvania  Historical  Society. 


88  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

descendants  of  the  constructors  of  those  ancient 
works,  driven  to  the  south  by  the  irruptions  of  the 
wild  tribes  of  the  north.*  Even  in  the  last  century 
they  built  solid  structures  of  beams  fastened  to  up- 
right supports,  plastered  on  the  outside,  and  in  the 
interior  divided  into  a  number  of  rooms.  The  art  of 
picture-writing  was  not  unknown  to  them,  and  some 
years  ago  I  published  their  remarkable  "national 
legend,"  read  off  from  its  hieroglyphics  painted  on  a 
skin  by  their  chief  Chekilli  in  I73i.f 

The  religious  rites  of  the  Creeks  were  so  elaborate 
that  they  attracted  early  attention,  and  we  have  quite 
full  accounts  of  them.  They  were  connected  with 
the  worship  of  the  principle  of  fertility,  the  chief 
celebration,  called  the  busk  (puskita,  fast),  being 
solemnized  when  the  young  corn  became  edible.  In 
connection  with  this  was  the  use  of  the  "  black 
drink,"  a  decoction  of  the  Iris  versicolor,  and  the 
maintenance  of  the  perpetual  fire.  Their  chief  di- 
vinity was  referred  to  as  the  "  master  of  breath  "  or 
of  life,  and  there  was  a  developed  symbolism  of 
colors,  white  representing  peaceful  and  pleasant 
ideas  ;  red,  those  of  war  and  danger.  The  few  Semi- 
noles  who  still  survive  in  the  southern  extremity  of 
the  peninsula  of  Florida  continue  the  ceremonies  of 
the  green  corn  dance  and  black  drink,  though  their 

*  See  on  this  subject  an  essay  on  "The  Probable  Nationality  of 
the  MouncUBuilders, "  in  my  Essays  of  an  Americanist,  p.  67. 
(Philadelphia,  1890.) 

t  D,  G.  Brinton,  "  The  National  Legend  of  the  Chahta-Muskoki 
Tribes,"  in  The  Historical  Magazine,  February,  1870.  (Repub- 
lished  in  Vol.  IV.  of  Brinton's  Library  of  Aboriginal  American 
Literature.) 


SOUTHERN   TRIBES.  89 

mythology  in  general  has  become  deeply  tinged  with 
half-understood  Christian  teachings.* 

THE  MUSKOKI   LINGUISTIC  STOCK. 

Apalaches,  on  Apalache  Bay. 

Chickasaws,  head  waters  of  Mobile  river. 

Choctaws,  between  the  Mobile  and  Mississippi  rivers. 

Coshattas,  on  the  Red  river. 

Creeks,  see  Muskokis. 

Hitchitees,  sub-tribe  of  Creeks. 

Muskokis,  between  Mobile  and  Savannah  rivers. 

Seminoles,  in  Florida. 

Yamassees,  around  Port  Royal  Bay,  South  Carolina. 

7-  THE  CATAWBAS,  YUCHIS,  TIMUCUAS,  NATCHEZ, 
CHETIMACHAS,  TONICAS,  ADAIZE,  ATAKAPAS,  ETC. 
Within  the  horizon  of  the  Muskoki  stock  were  a 
number  of  small  tribes  speaking  languages  totally 
different.  We  may  reasonably  suppose  them  to  have 
been  the  debris  of  the  ancient  population  who  held 
the  land  before  the  Muskokis  had  descended  upon  it 
from  the  north  and  west.  The  Catawbas  in  the  area 
of  North  and  South  Carolinas  were  one  of  these,  and 
in  former  times  are  said  to  have  had  a  wide  extension. 
South  of  them  was  the  interesting  tribe  of  the  Yuchis. 
When  first  heard  of  they  were  on  both  banks  of  the 
Savannah  river,  but  later  moved  to  the  Chatahuche. 
They  call  themselves  "  Children  of  the  Sun,"  which 
orb  they  regard  as  a  female  and  their  mother.  Their 
gentes  are  the  same  as  those  of  the  Creeks,  and  are 
evidently  borrowed  from  them.  Descent  is  counted 
in  the  female  line.  Women  are  held  in  honor,  and 

"The  Seminole  Indians  of  Florida,"  by  Clay  MacCauley,  in 
Annual  Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  1883-4. 


9O  THE  AMERICAN   RACE. 

when  De  Soto  first  met  them  they  were  governed  by 
a  queen.* 

Some  of  both  these  tribes  still  survive  ;  but  this  is 
not  the  case  with  the  Timucuas,  who  occupied  the 
valley  of  the  St.  John  river,  Florida,  and  its  tribu 
taries,  and  the  Atlantic  coast  as  far  north  as  the  St. 
Mary  river.  They  have  been  extinct  for  a  century, 
but  we  have  preserved  some  doctrinal  works  written 
in  their  tongue  by  Spanish  missionaries  in  the  seven- 
teenth century,  so  we  gain  an  insight  into  their  lan- 
guage.f  It  is  an  independent  stock. 

Near  the  Choctaws  were  the  Natchez,  not  far  from 
the  present  city  of  that  name.  An  account  of  them 
has  been  preserved  by  the  early  French  settlers  of 
Louisiana.  They  were  devoted  sun-worshippers  and 
their  chief  was  called  "  The  Sun,"  and  regarded  as 
the  earthly  representative  of  the  orb.  They  con- 
structed artificial  mounds,  upon  which  they  erected 
temples  and  houses,  and  were  celebrated  for  their 
skill  in  weaving  fabrics  from  the  inner  bark  of  the 
mulberry  tree  and  for  their  fine  pottery.  In  their  re- 
ligious rites  they  maintained  a  perpetual  fire,  and 
were  accustomed  to  sacrifice  captives  to  their  gods, 
and  the  wives  of  their  chieftain  at  his  death. 

The  Taensas  were  a  branch  of  the  Natchez  on  the 


*  See  for  the  Yuchis,  their  myths  and  language,  Gatschet  in 
Science,  1885,  p.  253. 

f  Arte  de  la  Lengua  Timuquana  compuesto  en  1614  per  el  Pe 
Francisco  Pereja.  Reprint  by  Lucien  Adam  and  Julien  Vinson, 
Paris,  1886.  An  analytical  study  of  the  language  has  been  pub- 
lished by  Raoul  de  la  Grasserie  in  the  Compte  Rendu  du  Congrh 
International  des  Am&ricanistes,  1888. 


SOUTHERN  TRIBES.  9! 

other  bank  of  the  Mississippi.  Attention  has  been 
drawn  to  them  of  late  years  by  the  attempt  of  a  young 
seminarist  in  France  to  foist  upon  scholars  a  language 
of  his  own  manufacture  which  he  had  christened 
Taensa,  and  claimed  to  have  derived  from  these  peo- 
ple.* The  Natchez  language  contains  many  words 
from  the  Muskoki  dialects,  but  is  radically  dissimilar 
from  it.f  A  few  of  the  nation  still  preserve  it  in 
Indian  Territory. 

The  Chctimachas  lived  on  the  banks  of  Grand  Lake 
and  Grand  River,  and  were  but  a  small  tribe.  They 
are  said  to  have  been  strictly  monogamous,  and  to 
have  had  female  chieftains.  Their  chief  deity  was 
Kut-Kahansh,  the  Noon-day  Sun,  in  whose  honor 
they  held  sacred  dances  at  each  new  moon. 

The  Tonicas  are  frequently  mentioned  in  the  early 
French  accounts  of  the  colony  of  Louisiana.  They 
lived  in  what  is  now  Avoyelles  parish,  and  were 
staunch  friends  of  the  European  immigrants.  Their 
language  is  an  independent  stock,  and  has  some  un- 
usual features  in  American  tongues,  such  as  a  mas- 
culine and  a  feminine  gender  of  nouns  and  a  dual  in 
three  pronouns. 

The  Adaize  or  Atai  were  a  small  tribe  who  once 
lived  between  Saline  river  and  Natchitoche,  La. 
They  spoke  a  vocalic  language,  differing  from  any 
other,  though  including  a  number  of  Caddo  words, 
which  was  owing  to  their  having  been  a  member  of 
the  Caddo  confederacy. 

*See  "The  Curious  Hoax  of  the  Taeusa  Language  "  in  my 
Essays  of  an  Americanist,  p.  452. 

f  D.  G.  Brinton,  "The  Language  of  the  Natchez,"  in  Proceed- 
ings of  the  American  Philosophical  Society,  1873. 


92  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

The  Atakapas  had  their  hunting  grounds  about 
Vermilion  river  and  the  adjacent  Gulf  coast.  Their 
name  in  Choctow  means  "  man-eaters,"  both  they 
and  their  neighbors  along  the  Texan  coast  having  an 
ugly  reputation  as  cannibals,  differing  in  this  from 
the  Muskokis  and  their  neighbors  east  of  the  Missis- 
sippi, among  whom  we  have  no  record  of  anthro- 
pophagy, even  of  a  ritual  character.  The  later  gen- 
erations of  Atakapas  have  been  peaceful  and  indus- 
trious. Their  language,  though  in.  the  main  quite 
alone,  presents  a  limited  number  of  words  evidently 
from  the  same  roots  as  their  correspondents  in  the 
Uto-Aztecan  family. 

The  coast  of  Texas,  between  the  mouths  of  the 
Colorado  and  Nueces  rivers,  was  the  home  of  the 
Carankaways.  The  Spaniards  gave  them  a  very 
black  character  as  merciless  cannibals,  impossible  to 
reduce  or  convert  ;  but  the  French  and  English  set- 
tlers speak  of  them  in  better  terms.  In  appearance 
they  were  tall  and  strong,  with  low  foreheads,  hooked 
noses,  prominent  cheek  bones,  tattooed  skins,  and 
wore  their  black  hair  long  and  tangled.  The  older 
writers  affirm  that  they  spoke  Atakapa,  and  were  a 
branch  of  that  tribe ;  but  the  scanty  material  of  their 
idiom  which  we  possess  seems  to  place  them  in  a  stock 
by  themselves. 

The  Tonkaways  are  a  small  tribe  who  lived  in 
northwest  Texas,  speaking  a  tongue  without  known 
relationship.  A  curious  feature  of  their  mythology 
is  the  deification  of  the  wolf.  They  speak  of  this 
animal  as  their  common  ancestor,  and  at  certain 
seasons  hold  wolf  dances  in  his  honor,  at  which  they 


TEXAN   TRIBES.  93 

dress  themselves  in  wolf  skins  and  howl  and  run  in 
imitation  of  their  mythical  ancestor  and  patron.  A 
branch  of  them,  the  Arrenamuses,  is  said  to  have 
dwelt  considerably  to  the  south  of  the  main  body, 
near  the  mouth  of  the  San  Antonio  river. 

The  lower  Rio  Grande  del  Norte  was  peopled  on 
both  its  banks  by  a  stock  which  was  christened  by 
Orozco  y  Berra  the  Coahuiltecan,  but  which  Pimentel 
preferred  to  call  the  Texan.  The  latter  is  too  wide  a 
word,  so  I  retain  the  former.  There  is  not  much 
material  for  the  study  of  its  dialects,  so  we  are  left  in 
the  dark  as  to  the  relationship  of  many  tribes  resi- 
dent in  that  region.  They  were  small  in  size  and 
rich  in  names.  Adolph  Uhde  gives  the  appellations 
and  locations  of  seventy-four,  based  on  previous  works 
and  personal  observations.*  The  missionary  Garcia, 
in  his  Manual  of  the  Sacraments,  published  in  the 
last  century,  names  seventeen  tribes  speaking  dia- 
lects of  the  tongue  he  employs,  which  appears  to  be 
a  branch  of  the  Coahuiltecan.f 

*  Die  Lander  am  untern  Rio  Bravo  del  Norte.  S.  120,  sqq. 
(Heidelberg,  1861.)  I  give  the  following  words  from  his  vocabu- 
lary of  the  Carrizos  : 

Man,  na.  One,  pequeten. 

Woman,  estoc,  kem.  Two,  acequeten. 

Sun,  al.  Three,  guiye, 

Moon,  kan.  Four,  naiye. 

Fire,  len.  Five,  maguele. 

The  numbers  three,  four  and  five  are  plainly  the  Nahuatl  yey, 
nahui,  macuilli,  borrowed  from  their  Uto-Aztecan  neighbors. 

f  Bartolome"  Garcia,  Manuel  para  administrar  los  Santos  Sacra- 
tnentos.  (Mexico,  1760.)  It  was  written  especially  for  the  tribes 
about  the  mission  of  San  Antonio  in  Texas. 


94  THE  AMERICAN   RACE. 

It  is  useless  to  repeat  the  long  list,  the  more  so  as 
the  bands  were  unimportant  and  have  long  since 
become  extinct,  with  a  few  exceptions.  They  were 
in  a  savage  condition,  roving,  and  depending  on 
hunting  and  fishing.  The  following  appear  to  have 
been  the  principal  members  of  the 

COAHUII.ETCAN  LINGUISTIC  STOCK. 

Ala.za.pas,  near  Monclova. 

Cacalotes,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rio  Grande. 

Catajanos  or  Cartujanos,  near  Monclova. 

Carrizos,  near  Monclova. 

Coaquilenes,  near  Monclova. 

Colonatnes,  left  bank  of  Rio  Grande. 

Comecrudos,  near  Reynosa. 

Orejones,  near  San  Antonio  de  Bejar. 

Pacaos  or  Pakawas,  near  San  Antonio. 

Among  the  extinct  dialects  of  Tamaulipas  was  the 
Maratin,  which  at  one  time  had  considerable  exten- 
sion. The  only  monument  which  has  been  pre- 
served of  it  is  a  wild  song,  in  which  the  natives  cele- 
brated all  too  early  their  victories  over  the  Spaniards. 
The  text  contains  several  Nahuatl  words,  but  the 
body  of  the  roots  appear  to  have  been  drawn  from 
some  other  source.*  Uhde  locates  the  Maratins  near 
Soto  la  Marina  and  along  the  Gulf  between  the  Rio 
Panuco  and  the  Rio  Grande.f 

*As  chiquat,  woman,  Nah.  cihuatl ;  baah-ka,  to  drink,  Nah. 
paitia.  The  song  is  given,  with  several  obvious  errors,  in  Pimentel, 
Lenguas  Indigenas  de  Mexico,  Tom.  III.,  p.  564  ;  Orozcoy  Berra's 
lists  mentions  only  the  Aratines,  Geografia  de  las  Lenguas  de 
Mexico,  p.  295. 

t  Adolph  Uhde,  Die  Lander  am  unteru  Rio  Bravo  del  Norte,  p. 

120. 


TRIBES  OF  THE  PLAINS  95 

8.   THE   PAWNEES   (CADDOES). 

The  Pani  *  stock  was  scattered  irregularly  from  the 
Middle  Missouri  River  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The 
Pawnees  proper  occupied  the  territory  from  the  Nio- 
brara  River  south  to  the  Arkansas.  The  Arikari 
branch  had  separated  and  migrated  to  the  north  at 
a  comparatively  recent  period,  while  the  Wichitas, 
Caddoes  and  Huecos  roamed  over  Eastern  Louisiana 
and  Western  Texas.  The  earliest  traditions  of  all 
these  peoples  assign  their  priscan  home  toward  the 
south,  and  the  Pawnees  remembered  having  driven 
the  Dakota  tribes  from  the  hunting  grounds  of  the 
Platte  Basin. 

The  stock  as  a  rule  had  an  excellent  physique, 
being  tall  and  robust,  with  well-proportioned  fea- 
tures, the  lips  thin  and  the  eyes  small.  Longevity 
however  was  rare,  and  few  of  either  sex  reached  the 
age  of  sixty.  The  division  of  the  tribes  was  into 
bands  and  these  into  totems,  but  the  gentile  system 
did  not  prevail  with  much  strength  among  them. 
The  chieftainship  of  the  bands  was  hereditary  in  the 
male  line,  and  the  power  of  the  chief  was  almost 
absolute.  He  was  surrounded  by  a  body  of  retainers 
whom  he  supported,  and  who  carried  out  his  orders. 
When  he  wished  a  council  these  messengers  carried 
the  summons.  Property  as  well  as  power  passed  to 

*  The  name  Pani  is  not  a  word  of  contempt  from  the  Algonkin 
language,  as  has  often  been  stated,  but  is  from  the  tongue  of  the 
people  itself.  Pariki  means  a  horn,  in  the  Arikari  dialect  uriki, 
and  refers  to  their  peculiar  scalp-lock,  dressed  to  stand  erect  and 
curve  slightly  backward,  like  a  horn.  From  these  two  words  came 
the  English  forms  Pawnee  and  Arikaree.  (Dunbar.) 


g6  THE  AMERICAN   RACE. 

the  family  of  the  male,  and  widows  were  often  de- 
prived of  everything  and  left  in  destitution.  Mar- 
riage was  a  strictly  commercial  transaction,  the 
woman  being  bought  from  her  parents.  The  pur- 
chase effected,  the  bridegroom  had  a  right  to  espouse 
all  the  younger  sisters  of  his  wife  as  they  grew  to 
maturity,  if  he  felt  so  inclined.  The  laxity  of  the 
marriage  rules  of  the  stock  was  carried  to  its  limit  by 
the  Arikaris,  among  whom  it  is  said  fathers  united 
with  their  daughters  and  brothers  with  their  sisters, 
without  offending  the  moral  sense  of  the  community. 
This  may  have  arisen  after  corruption  by  the  whites. 

Agriculture  among  them  was  more  in  favor  than 
generally  on  the  plains.  Maize,  pumpkins  and 
squashes  were  cultivated,  each  family  having  its  own 
field  two  or  three  acres  in  extent.  For  about  four 
months  of  the  year  they  were  sedentary,  dwelling  in 
houses  built  of  poles  and  bark  covered  with  sods, 
while  the  remainder  of  the  time  they  wandered  over 
their  hunting  grounds,  carrying  with  them  tents  of 
skins  which  were  stretched  on  poles.  The  women 
manufactured  a  rude  pottery  and  the  men  implements 
and  weapons  of  wood  and  stone.  The  Arikaris  were 
skilled  in  the  construction  of  boats  of  skin  stretched 
over  wooden  frames,  an  art  they  may  have  learned 
from  the  Mandans. 

The  information  about  their  religion  is  vague,  but 
it  seems  in  some  respects  to  have  resembled  that  of  the 
Mexican  nations.  One  of  their  chief  divinities  was 
the  morning  star,  Opirikut,  which  was  supposed  to 
represent  the  deity  of  fertility  and  agriculture.  At 
the  time  of  corn-planting  a  young  girl,  usually  a  cap- 


PAWNEE   SACRIFICES.  97 

tive,  was  sacrificed  to  this  divinity.  The  victim  was 
bound  to  a  stake  and  partly  burned  alive  ;  but  before 
life  had  ceased,  her  breast  was  cut  open,  her  heart 
torn  out  and  flung  in  the  flames.  Her  flesh  was  then 
cut  into  small  pieces  and  buried  in  the  cornfield. 
This  was  believed  to  secure  an  abundant  crop.  The 
similarity  of  the  rite  to  that  in  vogue  among  the 
Mexicans,  who  also  worshipped  the  morning  star  as 
the  goddess  of  fertility,  is  interesting. 

The  dead   were   buried  with  their  possessions,  and 
the  customs  of   mourning   continued   sometimes   for 


years.* 


PANI  LINGUISTIC  STOCK. 


Anaddakkas,  on  left  bank  of  Sabine  river. 

Arikaris,  on  the  middle  Missouri. 

Assinais,  in  central  Texas. 

Caddoes,  near  Clear  Lake,  La. 

Cents,  see  Assinais. 

Huecos,  on  the  upper  Brazos  river.  • 

Innies,  see  Texas. 

Nachitoches,  on  upper  Red  river. 

Natacos,  see  Anaddakkas. 

Pawnees,  between  Niobrara  and  Arkansas  rivers. 

Tawamnies,  on  upper  Leon  river. 

Texas,  on  upper  Sabine  river  and  branches. 

Towachies,  see  Pawnees. 

Wichitas,  on  norA  bank  of  Red  river. 

Yatasses,  on  Stony  creek,  an  affluent  of  Red  river. 

*  The  authorities  on  the  Panis  are  John  B.  Dunbar,  in  the  Maga- 
zine of  American  History,  1888  ;  Hayden,  Indian  Tribes  of  the 
Missouri  Valley  (Philadelphia,  1862),  and  various  government  re- 
ports. 

7 


98  THE  AMERICAN    RACE. 

9.   THE   DAKOTAS  (SIOUX). 

The  western  water-shed  of  the  Mississippi  river  was 
largely  in  the  possession  of  the  Dakota  or  Sioux 
stock.  Its  various  tribes  extended  in  an  unbroken 
line  from  the  Arkansas  river  on  the  south  to  the 
Saskatchewan  on  the  north,  populating  the  whole  of 
the  Missouri  valley  as  far  up  as  the  Yellowstone. 
Their  principal  tribes  in  the  south  were  the  Quapaws, 
Kansas  and  Osages  ;  in  the  central  region  the  Poncas, 
Omahas  and  Mandans ;  to  the  north  were  the  Sioux, 
Assiniboins  and  Crows ;  while  about  Green  Bay  on 
Lake  Michigan  lived  the  Winnebagoes. 

The  opinion  was  formerly  entertained  that  this 
great  family  moved  to  the  locations  where  they  were 
first  met  from  some  western  home;  but  the  researches 
of  modern  students  have  refuted  this.  Mr.  Dorsey 
has  shown  by  an  analysis  of  their  most  ancient  tradi- 
tions that  they  unanimously  point  to  an  eastern 
origin,  and  that  the  central  and  southern  bands  did 
not  probably  cross  the  Mississippi  much  before  the 
fourteenth  century.*  This  is  singularly  supported 
by  the  discovery  of  Mr.  Horatio  Hale  that  th£  Tute- 
loes  of  Virginia  were  a  branch  of  the  Dakotas  ;  and 
further,  the  investigations  of  Catlin  among  the  Man- 
dans  resulted  in  showing  that  this  nation  reached  the 
Missouri  valley  by  travelling  down  the  Ohio.  They 
therefore  formed  a  part  of  the  great  easterly  migra- 
tion of  the  North  Atlantic  tribes  which  seem  to 

*  J.  Owen  Dorsey,  "  Migrations  of  Siouan  Tribes, "  in  the  Amer- 
ican Naturalist,  1886,  p.  in.  The  numerous  and  profound  studies 
of  this  stock  by  Mr.  Dorsey  must  form  the  basis  of  all  future  in- 
vestigation of  its  history  and  sociology. 


CUSTOMS  OF  DAKOTAS.  99 

have  been  going  on  for  many  centuries  before  the 
discovery.  In  the  extreme  south,  almost  on  the  gulf 
coast  of  Louisiana,  lived  some  small  bands  of  Dako- 
tas,  known  as  Biloxis,  Opelousas,  Pascagoulas,  etc. 
They  were  long  supposed  to  speak  an  independent 
tongue,  and  only  of  late  years  has  their  proper  posi- 
tion been  denned. 

Their  frames  are  powerful,  and  the  warriors  of  the 
Sioux  have  long  enjoyed  a  celebrity  for  their  hardi- 
hood and  daring.  The  massacre  of  General  Custer's 
command,  which  they  executed  in  1876,  was  the 
severest  blow  the  army  of  the  United  States  ever 
experienced  at  the  hands  of  the  red  man.  With 
reference  to  cranial  form  they  are  dolichocephalic, 
sixteen  out  of  twenty-three  skulls  in  the  collection  of 
the  Academy*  offering  a  cephalic  index  under  80. 

The  northern  Dakotas  do  not  seem  to  have  had  the 
same  system  of  gentes  which  prevailed  in  most  of  the 
eastern  tribes.  Mr.  Morgan  was  of  the  opinion  that 
it  had  existed,  but  had  been  lost ;  this,  however,  re- 
quires further  proof.  There  are  many  societies 
among  them,  but  not  of  the  nature  of  clans.  Their 
chiefs  hold  their  position  by  hereditary  descent  in 
the  male  line,  though  among  the  Winnebagoes  the 
early  traveller,  Carver  found  the  anomaly  of  a 
woman  presiding  over  the  tribe.  The  central  bands, 
the  Mandans  and  Minnetarees,  recognized  gentes 
with  descent  in  the  female  line ;  while  among  the 
Poncas  and  Omahas  there  were  also  gentes,  but  with 
descent  in  the  male  line.  The  condition  in  this  re- 
spect, of  the  members  of  this  family,  as  also  of  that 

*  The  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,  Philadelphia. 


100  THE  AMERICAN     RACE. 

of  the  Athabascan,  seems  to  prove  that  the  gentile 
system  is  by  no  means  a  fixed  stadium  of  even  Amer- 
ican ancient  society,  but  is  variable,  and  present  or 
absent  as  circumstances  may  dictate. 

A  few  members  of  this  family,  notably  the  Man- 
dans,  attained  a  respectable  degree  of  culture,  becom- 
ing partly  agricultural,  and  dwelling  most  of  the 
year  in  permanent  abodes ;  but  the  majority  of  them 
preferred  depending  on  the  bounties  of  nature,  pur- 
suing the  herds  of  buffaloes  over  the  boundless  pas- 
tures of  the  plains,  or  snaring  the  abundant  fish  in 
the  myriad  streams  which  traversed  their  country. 

The  mythology  of  the  Dakotas  is  concerned  with 
the  doings  of  giants  in  whom  we  recognize  personifi- 
cations of  the  winds  and  storms.  One  of  these  is 
Haokah,  to  whom  the  warrior  sends  up  an  invocation 
when  about  to  undertake  some  perilous  exploit. 
The  thunder  is  caused  by  huge  birds  who  flap  their 
wings  angrily  and  thus  produce  the  portentous  rever- 
berations. The  waters  are  the  home  of  Unktahe,  a 
mighty  spirit  who  lurks  in  their  depths.  Indeed,  to 
the  Dakotas,  and  not  to  them  alone,  but  to  man  in 
their  stage  of  thought,  "  All  nature  is  alive  with 
gods.  Every  mountain,  every  tree  is  worshipped, 
and  the  commonest  animals  are  the  objects  of  ado- 
ration." * 

DAKOTA  LINGUISTIC  STOCK. 

Arkansas,  on  lower  Arkansas  river. 

Assiniboins,  on  Saskatchewan  and  Assiniboin  rivers. 

Biloxis,  in  Rapides  Parish,  Louisiana. 

*  Mrs.  Mary  Eastman,    Dahcotah  ;  or  Life  and  Legends  of  the 
Sioux,  p.  211.     (New  York,  1849.) 


THE   KIOWAYS.  IOI 

Crows,  on  Yellowstone  river. 

lowas,  on  the  Iowa  river. 

Kansas,  on  the  Kansas  river. 

Mandans,  on  the  middle  Missouri  river. 

Minetarees,  on  the  Yellowstone  river. 

Ogallalas,  sub-tribe  of  Sioux. 

Omahas,  on  the  Elkhorn  river. 

Osages,  on  Arkansas  and  Osage  rivers. 

Ottoes,  on  the  Platte  river. 

Poncas,  on  the  middle  Missouri  river. 

Quapaws,  on  lower  Arkansas  river. 

Sioux,  on  upper  Mississippi  and  affluents. 

Tetons,  sub-tribe  of  Sioux. 

Tuteloes,  on  upper  Roanoke  river,  Va. 

Winnebagoes,  western  shore  of  Lake  Michigan. 

Yanktons,  on  upper  Iowa  river. 

10.   THE   KIOWAYS. 

The  upper  basin  of  the  Canadian  branch  of  the 
Arkansas  River  was  the  home  of  the  Kioways.  At 
the  middle  of  this  century  they  were  estimated  to  be 
over  three  thousand,  all  given  to  a  wild  hunting  life 
over  the  great  plains  on  which  they  lived.  In  close 
proximity  to  the  Comanches  and  other  tribes  of 
Shoshonian  lineage,  their  language  presents  many 
affinities  to  the  Shoshonian  stock,  but  not  sufficient 
in  the  opinion  of  those  who  have  examined  both  to 
justify  classing  them  together  as  from  a  common 
source. 

The  Kioways  are  light  in  color,  broad  shouldered 
and  strong  armed,  and  for  generations  were  the 
Arabs  of  the  Great  American  Desert,  depending  on 
hunting  and  robbery  for  a  subsistence.  Their  homes 
were  light  skin  lodges,  which  they  spread  on  poles 
about  twelve  feet  long.  With  plenty  of  ponies  and 


IO2  THE  AMERICAN   RACE. 

without  fixed  habitations,  it  was  easy  for  them  to 
move  rapidly  over  the  Plains.  According  to  their 
traditions  they  came  originally  from  the  North,  from 
some  cold  country,  where  they  had  to  walk  on  snow 
shoes,  definitely  located  near  the  Black  Hills,  Dakota, 
where  they  were  associated  with  the  Apaches.  They 
were  idol  worshippers,  their  priesthood  consisting  of 
ten  medicine-men.  The  dead  were  buried  in  deep 
graves.  At  present  they  have  been  reduced  to  about 
one  thousand  souls.* 

*  W.  P.  Clark,  Indian  Sign  Language,  p.  229  ( Philadelphia, 
1885) ;  Whipple,  Ewbank  and  Turner,  Report  on  Indian  Tribes, 
pp.  28,  So.  (Washington,  1855.) 


II.  THE  NORTH  PACIFIC  GROUP. 


I.   THE  NORTHWEST  COAST  AND  CALIFORNIAN  TRIBES. 


lofty  chains  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  extend 
1  from  north  to  south,  leaving  a  narrow  coast  line 
seamed  with  deep  and  fertile  valleys  along  the  Pacific 
from  Mt.  St.  Elias  to  the  Gulf  of  California.  In 
spite  of  its  great  extent  in  latitude  —  from  the  3Oth  to 
the  6oth  degree  —  there  is  less  difference  in  climate 
than  one  would  suppose  from  analogy  in  any  other 
part  of  the  world.  The  warm  ocean  current  which 
bathes  the  northern  coast  mitigates  the  cold  of  the 
winter  to  such  an  extent  that  the  isothermal  lines  on 
the  Pacific  are  fifteen  degrees  of  latitude  more  north- 
erly than  on  the  Atlantic  border  of  the  continent. 

A  few  of  the  eastern  stocks,  the  Athabascan  and 
the  Shoshonian,  have  sent  out  colonies  who  have 
settled  on  the  banks  of  the  Pacific  ;  but  as  a  rule  the 
tribes  of  the  western  coast  are  not  connected  with  any 
east  of  the  mountains.  What  is  more  singular,  al- 
though they  differ  surprisingly  among  themselves  in 
language,  they  have  marked  anthropologic  similar- 
ities, physical  and  psychical.  Virchow  *  has  empha- 
sized the  fact  that  the  skulls  from  the  northern  point 

*  R.  Virchow,  Verhand.  der  Berliner  Gesell.  fur  Anthropologie^ 
1889,  s.  400. 

(103) 


104  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

of  Vancouver's  Island  reveal  an  unmistakable  anal- 
ogy to  those  from  the  southern  coast  of  California; 
and  this  is  to  a  degree  true  of  many  intermediate 
points.  Not  that  the  crania  have  the  same  indices. 
On  the  contrary,  they  present  great  and  constant  dif- 
ferences within  the  same  tribe  ;*  but  these  differences 
are  analogous  one  to  the  other,  and  on  fixed  lines. 

There  are  many  other  physical  similarities  which 
mark  the  Pacific  Indians  and  contrast  them  with 
those  east  of  the  mountains.  The  eyes  are  less  ob- 
lique, the  nose  flatter,  the  lips  fuller,  the  chin  more 
pointed,  the  face  wider.  There  is  more  hair  on  the 
face  and  in  the  axilla,  and  the  difference  between  the 
sexes  is  much  more  obvious,  f 

The  mental  character  is  also  in  contrast.  The 
Pacific  tribes  are  more  quiet,  submissive  and  docile  ; 
they  have  less  courage,  and  less  of  that  untamable 
independence  which  is  so  constant  a  feature  in  the 
history  of  the  Algonkins  and  Iroquois. 

Beginning  at  the  sixtieth  degree  of  north  latitude 
and  extending  to  the  fifty-fifth,  are  the  Tlinkit  or 
Kolosch.  They  dwell  on  the  coast  of  Alaska  and  the 
adjacent  islands.  Physically  they  are  a  strong  and 
often  tall  people,  light  in  color,  with  black  or  slightly 
reddish  hair,  eyes  horizontal,  nose  aquiline.  The 
Russians  spoke  of  them  as  the  most  intelligent  tribe 
they  encountered  on  the  coast.  They  certainly  seem 

*  Dr.  Franz  Boas,  "Fourth  Report  on  the  Tribes  of  the  North 
West  Coast,"  in  Proceed.  Brit.  Assoc.  Adv.  Science,  1887. 

fDr.  J.  Iy.  Ive  Conte,  "  On  the  Distinctive  Characteristics  of  the 
Indians  of  California,"  in  Trans,  of  the  Amer.  Assoc.  for  the  Adv. 
of  Science,  1852,  p.  379. 


NORTHWEST   COAST  TRIBES.  IOJ 

to  have  developed  an  uncommon  appreciation  of 
property,  which  is  supposed  to  be  a  sign  of  a  high 
order  of  intellect.  Thus  they  have  a  gentile  system 
with  descent  in  the  female  line,  but  their  aristocracy 
and  the  selection  of  their  chiefs  are  entirely  on  a 
property  basis.  The  richest  obtain  the  highest 
places. 

The  Tlinkit  villages  are  permanent,  the  houses 
solidly  constructed  of  wood,  sometimes  with  the  ad- 
ditional protection  of  a  palisade.  The  carving  and 
painting  upon  them  are  elaborate,  the  subjects  being 
caricatures  of  faces,  men,  and  animal  forms.  The 
chiefs  erect  at  one  side  of  their  doors  carved  and 
painted  "  totem  posts,"  some  of  which  are  nearly 
fifty  feet  high.  These  are  also  found  among  the 
Haidahs  and  Tshimshians  to  the  south.  The  arts 
are  correspondingly  developed.  Seaworthy  canoes 
are  hewn  from  the  trunks  of  the  red  cedar,  hides  are 
dressed  and  the  leather  worked  into  a  variety  of 
articles ;  lamps,  mortars  and  utensils  were  chipped 
or  ground  out  of  stone,  and  they  are  handy  in  beat- 
ing out  ornaments  of  silver  and  copper.  The 
Tlinkits  have .  always  been  active  merchants,  and 
when  the  first  navigators  visited  their  villages  in 
1741,  they  were  surprised  to  find  them  in  possession 
of  iron  knives  and  other  articles  obtained  by  trade 
over  East  Cape  or  from  the  south.  The  usual  cur- 
rency were  the  dentalium  shells  found  along  the 
coast.  One  of  the  staple  articles  of  trade  were  slaves, 
a  custom  not  in  existence  on  the  Atlantic.  They 
were  bought  from  the  neighboring  tribes,  and  treated 
with  great  cruelty. 


106  THE  AMERICAN  RACE. 

Tlinkit  mythology  is  rich,  having  a  coherent  crea- 
tion and  deluge  myth,  the  principal  figure  in  which 
is  Jelchs,  the  raven.  He  is  the  Promethean  fire- 
bringer,  and  sets  free  the  sun,  moon  and  stars  from 
their  prisons.  The  religious  rites  are  in  the  hands  of 
priests  (shamans),  who  as  usual  exert  a  great  and  in- 
jurious influence.* 

The  Haidahs,  who  dwell  on  Queen  Charlotte  Islands 
and  Prince  of  Wales  Archipelago,  are  probably  a  dis- 
tant branch  of  the  Tlinkit,  though  the  affinity  has 
not  been  clearly  established,  so  they  are  officially 
classed  as  the  Skittagetan  stock,  from  the  Skidegate 
dialect  of  the  coast.  In  culture  and  appearance  they 
resemble  the  Tlinkits,  having  similar  mechanical 
skill.  Their  canoes  and  their  intricate  carvings, 
especially  totem-posts  and  pipes  of  black  slate,  are 
celebrated  products  of  the  northwest  coast. 

The  above  and  other  tribes  of  British  Columbia 
and  Washington,  the  Tshimshian,  the  Kwakiutl, 
the  Nootka,  Salish,  Chinook,  etc.,  are  so  much  alike 
physically  that  Dr.  Boas,  who  has  carried  out  the 
most  recent  and  thorough  examination  of  them,  ob- 
serves that  no  physical  distinctions  can  be  drawn 
between  them.f  In  some  the  hair  is  slightly  wavy ; 
in  others  the  nose  is  aquiline  or  flatter ;  the  heads 
of  several  are  artificially  deformed,  etc. ;  but  these 
differences  do  not  characterize  whole  stocks.  All 
have  a  great  respect  for  wealth,  and  consider  its  ac- 

*Dr.  Aurel  Krause,  Die  Tlinkit  Indianer.     (Jena,  1885.) 
•f  See  the  various  reports  of  Dr.  Boas  to  the  British   Association 
for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  and  the  papers  of  Messrs.  Tolruie 
and  Dawson,  published  by  the  Canadian  government. 


NORTHWEST   COAST  TRIBES.  IO/ 

cumulation  the  chief  object  of  life.  Among  them 
all,  women  are  honored  for  their  chastity  and  in- 
dustry, men  for  their  skill  in  hunting  and  fishing, 
and  for  their  bravery  in  war.  Their  character  is 
generally  sombre,  and  vanity  and  servility  are 
prominent  faults.  The  animal  totemic  system  gen- 
erally prevails,  the  child  among  the  Salish  and 
Kwakiutl  following  the  father's  gens.  The  com- 
munities are  divided  into  social  strata,  as  common 
people,  middle  class  and  chiefs.  A  favorite  method 
to  obtain  popularity  is  to  give  a  potlatch — a  great 
feast,  at  which  the  host  makes  expensive  presents  to 
the  guests,  and  thus  becomes  as  it  were  their  creditor 
to  the  amount  of  his  disbursement. 

The  Salish,  who  are  distinctively  known  as  Flat- 
heads,  though  the  custom  of  deforming  the  cranium 
is  not  confined  to  them,  occupied  a  large  tract  in 
northern  Washington  and  British  Columbia. 

The  principal  contribution  of  the  Chinooks  to 
modern  life  has  been  the  "  Chinook  jargon  "  which 
has  become  the  trade  language  of  the  coast.  It  is  a 
curious  medley  of  words,  and  has  been  recently  made 
the  subject  of  an  interesting  study  by  Mr.  Horatio 
Hale.* 

The  SaJiaptins  or  Nez  Percys,  with  their  affiliated 
tribes,  occupied  the  middle  and  upper  valley  of  the 
Columbia  and  its  affluents,  and  also  the  passes  of  the 
mountains.  They  were  in  contiguity  with  the 
Shoshonees  and  the  Algonkin  Blackfeet,  thus  hold- 
ing an  important  position,  intermediate  between  the 

*  A  Manual  of  the  Oregon  Trade  Language  or  Chinook  Jargon. 
By  Horatio  Hale.  (London,  1890.) 


IO8  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

eastern  and  the  Pacific  tribes.  Having  the  com- 
mercial instinct  of  the  latter,  they  made  good  use  of 
it,  and  every  summer  carried  the  various  products  of 
the  coast,  as  shells,  carved  pipes,  hammered  copper, 
etc.,  far  down  the  Missouri,  where  they  exchanged 
them  for  the  wares  of  the  tribes  there  situate. 

Of  the  numerous  other  linguistic  stocks  on  the 
coast  it  will  be  sufficient  for  me  to  append  the  classi- 
fication adopted  by  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology  at  Wash- 
ington. 

NORTH   PACIFIC  COAST  STOCKS. 

(Front  north  to  south.) 

Tlinkit  or  Koloschan,  in  southern  Alaska. 
Haidah  or  Skittagetan,  on  Queen  Charlotte  Islands. 

Dialects — Masset,  Skidegate,  etc. 
Tshimsian  or  Chimmessyanian,  on  Nass  and  Skeena  rivers. 

Dialects — Chimmessyan,  Nasqua. 
Kwakiootl  or  Haeltzukian,  on  Gardiner's  Channel. 

Dialects — Heiltsuk,  Kwakiutl,  Quaisla. 
Nulka  or  Wakashan,  on  western  coast  of  Vancouver  Island. 

Dialects — Aht,  Nootka,  Wakash. 
Chinook  or  Chinookan,  Columbia  river  to  Dalles ;  Pacific  coast 

to  Shoalwater  Bay  ;  south  to  Tillamuk  Head. 
Salish,  Admiralty  Inlet  to  Spokane  river. 

Dialects — Bilcoola,  Kawitschin,  L,ummi,  Sarnie. 
Chimakuan,  Puget  Sound,  Port  Townsend  to  Port  lyudlow. 
Kutenay  or  Kitunahan,  head-waters  of  Columbia. 
Sahaptin  or  Sahaptanian,  middle  affluents  of  Columbia. 

Dialects— Klikatat,  Nez  Perce",  Sahaptani,   Wallawalla,  Ya- 

kama. 

Wayilaptu  or  Waiilaptuan,  near  mouth  of  Wallawalla  river. 
Yakonan,  coast  of  Oregon  from  Yaquina  river  to  Umpqua  river. 
Kalapooian^  on  the  Wilamette  river. 
Kusan,  about  Coos  Bay. 
Palaihnihan  or  Achomawi,  on  Pit  river. 
Takilman,  on  upper  Rogue  river. 


CALIFORNIAN    TRIBES.  1 09 

Sastean  or  Shasta,  on  upper  Klatnath  river. 

Lutuamian  or  Modoc,  on  Klamath  Lake  and  Sprague  river. 

Quoratean  or  Ehnek,  on  lower  Klamath  river  to  junction  of 

Trinity  river. 

Yukian,  in  Round  Valley,  California. 
Yanan  or  Nazi,  Lassen  Butte  and  Round  Mountain. 
Pujunan  or  Maidu,  east  bank  of  Sacramento  river. 
Kulanapan  or  Porno,  Russian  river  and  adjacent  coast. 
Copehan  or  Wintun,  on  Trinity  river. 
Weitspekan  or  Rurok,  lower  Klamath  river  from  Trinity  river 

down. 

Chimarikan,  on  New  river  and  Trinity  river. 
Wishoskan,  on  Humboldt  Bay. 

Mariposan  or  Yakuts,  on  Kings  river  and  Tulare  Lake. 
Moquelumnian  or  Mutsun,  on  Tuolumne  river. 
Costanoan,  north  of  San  Francisco  Bay  to  Monterey  Bay. 
Esselenian,  Monterey  Bay  to  San  Lucia  Mts. 
Salinan,  about  San  Antonio  and  San  Miguel  missions.     Includes 

the  Tatche  or  Telame. 
Chumashan,  at  missions  of  San  Buenaventura,  Santa  Barbara, 

Santa  Inez,  Purissima  and  San  Luis  Obispo. 

2.    THE    YUMAS. 

The  valley  of  the  Colorado  River  in  Arizona,  the 
peninsula  of  California  and  portions  of  the  eastern 
shore  of  the  Gulf  of  California,  formed  the  home  of 
the  Yuma  stock.  They  were  found  in  these  regions 
by  Coronado  as  early  as  1540*  and  own  no  traditions 
of  having  lived  anywhere  else.  The  considerable 
differences  in  their  dialects  within  this  comparatively 
small  area  indicates  that  a  long  period  has  elapsed 
since  the  stock  settled  in  this  locality  and  split  up 
into  hostile  fractions. 

It  has  also  been  called  the  Katchan  or  Cuchan 
stock,  and  the  Apache,  that  being  the  Yuma  word 
for  "  fighting  men ; "  but  we  should  confine  the 


HO  THE  AMERICAN  RACE. 

term  Apaches  to  the  Tinneh  (Athapascan)  tribe  so 
called,  and  to  avoid  confusion  I  shall  dismiss  the 
terms  Apache-Yumas,  Apache-Tontos  and  Apache- 
Mohaves,  employed  by  some  writers.  The  Yumas, 
from  whom  the  stock  derives  its  name,  lived  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Colorado  River.  Above  them,  on  both 
banks  of  the  river,  were  the  Mohaves,  and  further  up, 
principally  on  Virgin  River,  were  the  Yavapai. 

Most  of  the  Yumas  are  of  good  stature,  the  adult 
males  averaging  five  feet  nine  inches  high,  well 
built  and  vigorous.  The  color  varies  from  a  dark  to 
a  light  mahogany  ;  the  hair  is  straight  and  coarse, 
the  eyes  horizontal,  the  mouth  large,  and  the  lips 
heavy.  The  skull  is  generally  brachycephalic,  but 
there  are  a  number  of  cases  of  extreme  dolichocephaly 
(68)* 

Animal  totems  with  descent  in  the  male  line  pre- 
vailed among  the  Yumas,  though  they  seem  for  a 
long  time  not  to  have  regarded  these  matters  closely. 
In  culture  they  vary  considerably.  The  Seris  or 
Ceris,  who  formerly  lived  in  the  hills  near  Horcasitas, 
but  in  1779  were  removed  to  the  island  of  Tiburon, 
are  described  as  thieves  and  vagrants,  lazy  and 
wretched.  They  were  exceedingly  troublesome  to 
the  Mexican  government,  having  revolted  over  forty 
times.  The  boats  they  use  are  of  a  peculiar  con- 
struction, consisting  of  rushes  tied  together.  As 
weapons  up  to  recent  years  they  preferred  the  bow 
and  arrow,  and  upon  the  arrow  laid  some  kind  of 

*  Dr.  W.  F.  Corbusier,  in  American  Antiquarian,  1886,  p.  276  ; 
Dr.  Ten  Kate,  in  Verhand,  der  Berliner  Cesell.  Jur  Anthrop., 
1889,  s.  667. 


CUSTOMS   OF   THE   YUMAS.  Ill 

poison  which  prevented  the  wounds  from  healing. 
Their  dialect,  which  is  harsh,  is  related  especially  to 
the  western  branch  of  the  Yuma  stem.  They  are 
described  as  light  in  color  and  some  of  them  good- 
looking,  but  filthy  in  habits.* 

The  Yumas  and  Maricopas  were  agricultural,  cul- 
tivating large  fields  of  corn  and  beans,  and  irrigating 
their  plantations  by  trenches.  It  is  highly  probable 
that  formerly  some  of  them  dwelt  in  adobe  houses  of 
the  pueblo  character,  and  were  the  authors  of  some 
of  the  numerous  ruined  structures  seen  in  southern 
Arizona.  The  pottery  and  basket  work  turned  out 
by  their  women  are  superior  in  style  and  finish.  A 
few  years  ago  the  Mohaves  of  the  west  bank  lived  in 
holes  in  the  earth  covered  with  brush,  or  in  small 
wattled  conical  huts.  For  clothing  they  wore  strips 
of  cottonwood  bark,  or  knotted  grass.  Tattooing 
and  painting  the  person  in  divers  colors  were  com- 
mon. The  favorite  ornament  was  shells,  arranged 
on  strings,  or  engraved  and  suspended  to  the  neck. 
The  chiefs  wore  elaborate  feather  head-dresses.f 

The  Tontos,  so-called  from  their  reputation  for 
stupidity,  are  largely  mixed  with  Tinne  blood,  their 
women  having  been  captured  from  the  Apaches. 
Though  savage,  they  are  by  no  means  dull,  and  are 
considered  uncommonly  adept  thieves. 

Quite  to  the  south,  in  the  mountains  of  Oaxaca  and 

*  J.  R.  Bartlett,  Explorations  in  New  Mexico,  Vol.  I.,  p.  464. 
C.  A.  Pajeken,  Reise-Erinnerungen  in  ethnographischen  Bildern, 
s.  97. 

t  Whipple,  Ewbank  and  Turner,  Report  on  Indian  Tribes  (Wash- 
ington, 1855),  and  numerous  later  authorities,  give  full  information 
about  the  Yumas. 


112  THE   AMERICAN    RACE. 

Guerrero,  the  Tequistlatecas,  usually  known  by  the 
meaningless  term  Chontales,  belong  to  this  stem, 
judging  from  the  imperfect  vocabularies  which  have 
been  published, 

The  peninsula  of  California  was  inhabited  by  sev- 
eral Yuma  tribes  differing  in  dialect  but  much  alike 
in  culture,  all  being  on  its  lowest  stage.  Wholly  un- 
acquainted with  metals,  without  agriculture  of  any 
kind,  naked,  and  constructing  no  sort  of  permanent 
shelters,  they  depended  on  fishing,  hunting  and  nat- 
ural products  for  subsistence.  Their  weapons  were 
the  bow  and  the  lance,  which  they  pointed  with 
sharpened  stones.  Canoes  were  unknown,  and  what 
little  they  did  in  navigation  was  upon  rafts  of  reeds 
and  brush. 

Marriages  among  them  were  by  individual  prefer- 
ence, and  are  said  not  to  have  respected  the  limits  of 
consanguinity ;  but  this  is  doubtful,  as  we  are  also 
told  that  the  mother-in-law  was  treated  with  peculiar 
ceremony.  Their  rites  for  the  dead  indicate  a  belief 
in  the  survival  of  the  individual.  The  body  was 
buried  and  after  a  certain  time  the  bones  were  cleaned, 
painted  red,  and  preserved  in  ossuasies. 

The  population  was  sparse,  probably  not  more 
than  ten  thousand  on  the  whole  peninsula.  At  the 
extreme  south  were  the  Pericus,  who  extended  to  N. 
Lat.  24° ;  beyond  these  lived  the  Guaicurus  to  about 
Lat.  26° ;  and  in  the  northern  portion  of  the  peninsula 
to  latitude  33°  the  Cochimis.*  The  early  writers 
state  that  in  appearance  these  bands  did  not  differ 

*  Jacob  Baegert,  Nachricht  von  den  Amerikanischen  Halbinsel 
Calif ornien.  (Mannheim,  1773.) 


TRIBES  OF  THE  YUMAS.  113 

from  the  Mexicans  on  the  other  side  of  the  Gulf. 
Their  skulls,  however,  which  have  been  collected 
principally  from  the  district  of  the  Pericus,  present  a 
peculiar  degree  of  elongation  and  height  (dolicho- 
cephalic and  hypsistenocephalic). 

YUMA  LINGUISTIC  STOCK. 

Ceris,  on  Tiburon  Island  and  the  adjacent  coast. 

Cochimis,  northern  portion  of  Californian  peninsula. 

Cocopas,  at  mouth  of  Colorado  river. 

Coco-Maricopas,  on  middle  Gila  river. 

Comeyas,  between  lower  Colorado  and  the  Pacific. 

Coninos,  on  Cataract  creek,  branch  of  the  Colorado. 

Cuchanes,  see  Yumas. 

Dieguenos,  near  San  Diego  on  the  Pacific. 

Gohunes,  on  Rio  Salado  and  Rio  Verde. 

Guatcurus,  middle  portion  of  Californian  peninsula. 

Hualapais,  from  lower  Colorado  to  Black  Mountains. 

Maricopas,  see  Coco-Maricopas. 

Mohaves,  on  both  banks  of  lower  Colorado. 

Pericus,  southern  extremity  of  Californian  peninsula. 

Tontos,  in  Tonto  basin  and  in  the  Final  mountains. 

Tequistlatecas,  of  Oaxaca  and  Guerrero. 

Yavipais,  west  of  Prescott,  Arizona. 

Yumas,  near  mouth  of  Colorado  river.* 

3.   THE   PUEBLO   TRIBES. 

The  word  pueblo  in  Spanish  means  simply  "  town  ;  '* 
but  in  American  ethnography  it  has  obtained  a 
special  signification  from  the  aboriginal  structures 
so-called,  whose  remains  are  found  in  profusion  in 
Arizona  and  the  neighboring  localities  over  an  area 

*  I  have  not  included  in  the  stock  the  so-called  M'Mat  stem,  in- 
troduced erroneously  by  Mr.  Gatschet,  as  Dr.  Ten  Kate  has  shown 
no  such  branch  exists.    See  Verhandlungen  der  Berliner  Anthrop. 
Gesell.,  1889,  ss.  666-7. 
8 


114  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

about  350  miles  from  east  to  west  and  300  miles  from 
north  to  south.*  These  are  buildings  several  stories 
in  height,  either  of  stone  or  of  adobes,  communal  in 
character,  that  is,  intended  to  accommodate  a  whole 
gens  or  clan,  and  usually  with  certain  peculiarities  of 
finish  and  plan.  The  adobes  are  generally  large, 
some  four  feet  long  by  two  feet  wide,  and  were  often 
made  upon  the  wall  itself,  the  clay  or  gravel  being 
carried  in  a  moist  state  in  baskets  of  this  size  and 
deposited  upon  the  wall  till  the  mass  dried.  When 
stones  are  employed,  they  are  held  together  by  a 
mud  mortar.  The  most  celebrated  of  these  adobe 
edifices  are  perhaps  the  Casas  Grandes  in  the  valley 
of  the  San  Miguel  river,  in  northern  Chihuahua. 
They  have  frequently  been  described  and  do  not 
differ  except  in  size  from  hundreds  of  other  ruins  in 
the  Gila  basin. 

In  connection  with  the  pueblos  stand  the  "  cliff- 
houses,"  structures  of  stones  usually  carefully  squared 
and  laid  in  mortar,  found  in  great  numbers  and  over 
an  area  of  wide  extent  in  the  deep  gorges  or  cafions 
of  the  Colorado,  the  Gila  and  the  upper  Rio  Grande, 
and  their  numberless  affluents.  They  are  perched 
upon  the  ledges  of  the  precipices,  which  often  descend 
almost  perpendicularly  for  thousands  of  feet,  and 
access  to  many  of  them  could  have  been  only  by 
ladders  or  ropes.  Prominent  points  are  frequently 
surmounted  by  round  or  square  stone  towers,  evi- 

*  Mr.  E.  A.  Barber  estimates  that  the  area  in  which  the  charac- 
teristic remains  of  the  cliff -dwellers  and  pueblos  are  found  contains 
200,000  square  miles.  Compte  Rendu  du  Congrts  des  Am&rican- 
istes,  1878,  Tome  I.,  p.  25. 


BUILDERS   OF  THE   CLIFF  HOUSES.  11$ 

dently  for  purposes  of  observation.  The  disposition 
of  the  cliff  houses  renders  it  certain  that  their  plans 
and  positions  were  selected  with  a  view  to  make  them 
safe  retreats  from  marauding  enemies. 

As  descriptions  of  these  interesting  ruins  have  often 
been  introduced  to  support  vague  and  extraordinary 
theories  concerning  ancient  America,  I  would  em- 
phatically say  there  is  nothing  in  any  of  the  remains 
of  the  pueblos,  or  the  cliff  houses,  or  any  other  an- 
tiquities in  that  portion  of  our  continent,  which  com- 
pels us  to  seek  other  constructors  for  them  than  the 
ancestors  of  the  various  tribes  which  were  found  on 
the  spot  by  the  Spaniards  in  the  sixteenth  century, 
and  by  the  armies  of  the  United  States  in  the  middle 
of  the  nineteenth.  This  opinion  is  in  accordance 
with  history,  with  the  traditions  of  the  tribes  them- 
selves, and  with  the  condition  of  culture  in  which 
they  were  found.  When,  in  1735,  Pedro  de  Ainza 
made  an  expedition  from  Santa  Fe  against  the  Nava- 
jos,  he  discovered  tribes  dwelling  in  stone  houses 
"  built  within  the  rocks,"  and  guarded  by  watch- 
towers  of  stone.*  The  Apaches  still  remember  driv- 
ing these  cliff-dwellers  from  their  homes,  and  one  of 
the  Apache  gentes  is  yet  named  from  them  "  stone- 
house  people. "f  As  for  the  pueblos,  seven  or  eight 
of  them  are  occupied  to-day  by  the  same  people  who 
built  them,  and  whose  homes  they  have  been  for 
many  centuries. 

*  "  Casas  y  atalayas  eregidas  dentro  de  las  penas."  I  owe  the 
quotation  to  Alphonse  Pinart. 

f  The  Tze-tinne  ;  Capt.  J.  G.  Bourke,  in  Jour,  Amer.  Folk-lore, 
1890,  p.  114. 


Il6  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

It  is  a  significant  fact  that  these  people  do  not  all 
belong  to  the  same  stock.  On  the  contrary,  the 
"  Pueblo  Indians  "  are  members  of  a  number  of  wholly 
disconnected  stems.  This  proves  that  the  Pueblo 
civilization  is  not  due  to  any  one  unusually  gifted 
lineage,  but  was  a  local  product,  developed  in  inde- 
pendent tribes  by  the  natural  facilities  offered  by  the 
locality.  It  is  a  spontaneous  production  of  the  soil, 
climate,  and  conditions,  which  were  unusually  favor- 
able to  agricultural  and  sedentary  occupations,  and 
prompted  various  tribes  to  adopt  them. 

Of  these  different  peoples,  those  of  the  Moqui 
Pueblo  belonged  to  the  Shoshonee  branch  of  the  Uto- 
Aztecan  stock,  and  is  the  only  existing  Pueblo  which 
is  peopled  by  that  wide-spread  stem.*  We  have  good 
reason  to  believe,  however,  that  the  Pimas  of  the 
Sonoran  Group  of  the  same  stock  once  occupied  a 
number  of  adobe  Pueblos,  and  quite  likely  were  the 
constructors  of  the  Casas  Grandes. 

The  natives  of  the  remaining  Pueblos  belong  to 
three  independent  stocks,  known  as  the  Kera,  the 
Tehua,  and  the  Zufii  families.  No  relationship  has 
been  discovered  between  either  of  these  and  any  tribe 
outside  the  territory  I  have  referred  to. 

The  culture  of  the  Pueblos,  both  ancient  and 
modern,  bears  every  mark  of  local  and  independent 

*This  affinity  was  first  demonstrated  by  Buschmann  in  his 
Spuren  der  aztekischen  Sprache,  though  Mr.  Bandelier  erroneously 
attributes  it  to  later  authority.  See  his  very  useful  Report  of  In- 
vestigations among  the  Indians  of  the  South  Western  United 
States,  p.  116.  (Cambridge,  1890.)  Readers  will  find  in  these 
excellent  reports  abundant  materials  on  the  Pueblo  Indians  and 
their  neighbors. 


THE   PUEBLO    INDIANS.  I  ij 

growth.  A  knowledge  of  metals,  other  than  to  a 
limited  extent  for  ornament,  is  nowhere  evident. 
Tillage  of  the  fields  in  a  rude  manner  was  the  main 
source  of  the  food  supply.  Pottery  of  fine  temper 
and  in  symmetrical  forms  was  manufactured  by  the 
women.  That  they  had  any  other  domestic  animal 
than  a  fowl,  and  sometimes  a  dog,  has  not  been 
shown.  Mats  and  clothing  were  woven  of  the  fibres 
of  bark  and  grass,  and  the  culture  of  cotton  was  at 
one  time  common,  especially  among  the  Moquis  and 
Pimas.  The  arts  of  weaving  feathers  and  working 
shells  into  decorative  objects  are  not  yet  lost.  Apart 
from  the  development  of  the  art  of  architecture,  there 
was  little  in  the  culture  of  the  Pueblo  tribes  to  lift 
them  above  the  level  of  the  Algonkins.  The 
acequias,  or  irrigation  trenches,  about  which  much 
has  been  written,  were  a  necessity  of  their  climate, 
and  were  in  use  among  their  southern  neighbors  in 
Sonora,  and  the  Navajos. 


KERA 

STOCK. 


TEHUA 
STOCK. 


ZUNI 
STOCK. 


WNGUISTIC  STOCKS  OF   THE  PUEBI.OS. 

Pueblos  of  Kera  or  Queres,  Cochiti,  Laguna,  Acoma, 
Silla,  etc.,  on  the  upper  Rio  Grande,  Jemezaud  San 
Juan  rivers. 

Jemez,  on  the  Jemez  river. 

Piros,  on  Rio  Grande  and  in  Chihuahua. 

Tanos,  near  Albuquerque,  New  Mexico. 

Taos,  at  Taos  Pueblo. 

Te/iuas,  at  Tesuque  and  neighboring  Pueblos. 

At  Zuni  Pueblo. 


III.  THE  CENTRAL  GROUP- 


I.    THE   UTO-AZTECAN   TRIBES. 

OF  all  the  stocks  on  the  North  American  Continent, 
that  which  I  call  the  Uto-Aztecan  merits  the 
closest  study,  on  account  of  its  wide  extension  and 
the  high  development  of  some  of  its  members. 
Tribes  speaking  its  dialects  were  found  from  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama  to  the  banks  of  the  Columbia 
River,  and  from  the  coast  of  the  Pacific  to  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico.  The  relationship  of  these  numerous  bands 
is  unquestionable,  although  many  of  them  have 
freely  adopted  words  from  other  stocks.  This,  how- 
ever, will  not  surprise  us  if  we  recall  that  most  of 
the  Aryac  languages  of  the  old  world  owe  about  one 
third  of  their  radicals  to  non-Aryac  sources. 

The  principal  members  of  this  stock  are  the  Utes, 
Shoshonees  and  Comanches  in  the  north,  various 
tribes  in  Sonora,  Chihuahua,  Sinaloa  and  Durango 
in  the  center,  and  the  Nahuas  or  Aztecs  in  the  south, 
It  is  not  to  be  understood  that  the  one  of  these 
derived  its  idioms  from  the  other,  but  rather  that  at 
some  remote  epoch  all  three  were  offshoots  from 
some  one  ancestral  stem.  This  was  at  a  period  be- 
fore the  grammatical  forms  of  the  tongue  had  reached 
full  development,  and  probably  when  it  was  in  a 

(118) 


EXTENSION   OF  THE  AZTECS.  1 19 

stage  of  isolation,  with  tendencies  to  suffix  aggluti- 
nation and  incorporation.  Since  then  the  stages  of 
growth  which  the  several  dialects  have  reached  have 
been  various.  The  one  which  far  outstripped  all 
others  was  the  Nahuatl,  which  arrived  at  clear  and 
harmonious  sounds,  fixed  forms,  and  even  some  recog- 
nizable traces  of  inflection,  though  always  retaining 
its  incorporative  character. 

The  establishment  of  the  unity  of  this  linguistic 
family  we  owe  to  the  admirable  labors  of  Joh.  Carl 
Ed.  Buschmann,  who  devoted  years  of  patient  inves- 
tigation to  examining  the  traces  of  the  Nahuatl,  or  as 
he  preferred  to  call  it,  the  Aztec  language,  in  Mexico 
and  throughout  the  continent  to  the  north.  In  spite 
of  deficient  materials,  his  sharp-sighted  acumen  dis- 
covered the  relationship  of  the  chief  tongues  of  the 
group',  and  later  investigations  have  amply  confirmed 
his  conclusions.* 

Long  before  his  day,  however,  the  Spanish  mis- 
sionaries to  the  tribes  of  Sonora  and  Sinaloa  had 
recognized  their  kinship  to  the  Aztecs,  and  Father 
Ribas,  in  his  history  of  the  missions  established  by 
the  Jesuits  in  Mexico,  published  in  1645,  stated  that 
the  root-words  and  much  of  the  grammar  of  all  these 
dialects  was  substantially  the  same  as  those  of  the 
Nahuatl.f 

*  Buschmann,  Die  Spuren  der  aztekischen  Spracheim  nordlichen 
Mexiko  und  hoheren  Americanischen  Norden.  4  to.  Berlin, 

1859,  PP-  8l9- 

Grammatik  der  SonorischenSprachen.  4  to.  Berlin,  Pt.  I.,  1864, 
pp.  266  ;  Pt.  II.,  1867,  pp.  215. 

t  Perez  de  Ribas,  Historia  de  los  Triomphos  de  Nuestra  Santa 
Ft,  Lib.  I.,  cap.  19. 


120  THE   AMERICAN    RACE. 

It  is  without  doubt  the  most  numerous  stock  now 
surviving.  According  to  the  census  figures  of  the 
governments  of.  the  United  States  and  Mexico  for 
1880,  the  numbers  were  as  follows  :  * 

Shoshonian  group,  including  Pimas  in  U.  S.  .  .        26,200 

Sonoran  group  in  Mexican  Territory 84,000 

Aztecan  group 1,626,000 

a.   The  Ute  or  Shoshonian  Branch. 

The  northern,  or  Ute  branch,  which  I  so  call  from 
its  most  prominent  member,  includes  the  Shoshonees, 
Utes  and  Comanches,  with  their  numerous  sub-tribes 
and  affiliated  bands.  They  occupied  at  'the  begin- 
ning of  this  century  an  immense  area,  now  included 
in  south-eastern  Oregon,  Wyoming,  Montana,  Idaho, 
Nevada,  parts  of  California,  New  Mexico  and  Ari- 
zona, northern  and  western  Texas,  and  the  states  of 
Durango  and  Chihuahua  in  Mexico.  Other  names 
by  which  they  are  known  in  this  area  are  Snakes, 
Bannocks,  Moquis,  etc.  Everywhere  their  tongue  is 
unmistakably  the  same.  "  Any  one  speaking  the 
Shoshonee  language  may  travel  without  difficulty 
among  the  wild  tribes  from  Durango,  in  Mexico,  to 
the  banks  of  the  Columbia  River."f  Their  war 
parties  scoured  the  country  from  the  Black  Hills  of 
Dakota  far  into  the  interior  of  Mexico. 

So  far  as  can  be  ascertained,  the  course  of  migra- 
tion of  this  group,  like  that  of  the  whole  stock,  has 
been  in  a  general  southerly  direction.  The  Co- 
manche  traditions  state  that  about  two  hundred  win- 

*  Anales  del  Ministerio  de  Fomento,  p.  99.     (Mexico,  1881.) 
t  Col.  A.  G.  Brackett,  in  Rep.  of  the  Smithson.  Inst.  1879,  p.  329. 


UTES  AND   SHOSHONEES.  121 

ters  ago  they  lived  as  one  people  with  the  Shoshonees 
somewhere  to  the  north  of  the  head-waters  of  the 
Arkansas  River.*  This  is  borne  out  by  similar  tra- 
ditions among  the  northern  Shoshonees.f  That  very 
careful  student,  Mr.  George  Gibbs,  from  a  review  of 
all  the  indications,  reached  the  conclusion  that  the 
whole  group  came  originally  from  the  east  of  the 
Rocky  Mountain  chain,  and  that  the  home  of  its 
ancestral  horde  was  somewhere  between  these  moun- 
tains and  the  Great  Lakes.:}:  This  is  the  opinion  I 
have  also  reached  from  an  independent  study  of  the 
subject,  and  I  believe  it  is  as  near  as  we  can  get  to 
the  birth-place  of  this  important  stock. 

This  stock  presents  the  extreme  of  both  linguis- 
tic and  physical  development.  No  tongue  on  the 
continent  was  more  cultured  than  the  Nahuatl,  and 
so  were  those  who  spoke  it.  The  wretched  root- 
digging  Utes,  on  the  other  hand,  present  the  lowest 
type  of  skulls  anywhere  found  in  America.|  The 
explanation  is  easy.  It  was  owing  to  their  lack  of 
nutrition.  Living  on  the  arid  plains  of  the  interior, 
little  better  than  deserts,  they  had  for  generations 
been  half  starved.  They  were  not  agricultural,  but 
lived  along  the  streams,  catching  fish,  and  making  a 
poor  bread  from  the  seeds  of  the  wild  sun-flower  and 
the  chenopodium.  Their  houses  were  brush  huts,  or 

*Capt.  W.  P.  Clark,  The  Indian  Sign  Language,  p.  118.  (Phil- 
adelphia, 1885.) 

t/Wrf.,  p-  338. 

\  See  Contributions  to  North  American  Ethnology,  Vol.  I.,  p. 
224.  (Washington,  1877). 

|1  R.  Virchow,  Crania  Ethnica  Americana. 


122  THE    AMERICAN   RACE. 

lodges  of  dressed  buffalo  skins;  and  where  the  win- 
ters were  cold,  they  dug  holes  in  the  ground  in  which 
they  huddled  in  indescribable  filth. 

Very  much  superior  to  these  are  the  Comanches. 
A  generation  or  two  ago  they  numbered  about  fifteen 
thousand,  and  were  one  of  the  most  formidable  na- 
tions of  the  west.  Now  they  have  diminished  to 
that  many  hundreds,  and  live  peaceably  on  reserva- 
tions. They  are  tall  (1.70)  and  well  formed,  the 
skull  meso-cephalic,  the  eyes  horizontal,  the  nose 
thin,  the  color  light.  Agriculture  is  not  a  favorite 
occupation,  but  they  are  more  reasonable  and  willing 
to  accept  a  civilized  life  than  their  neighbors,  the 
Apaches  or  the  Kioways.  They  had  little  govern- 
ment, and  though  polygamists,  the  women  among 
them  exercised  considerable  influence.  Like  the 
Utes,  they  are  sun-worshippers,  applying  to  that  orb 
the  term  "  father  sun,"  taab-apa,  and  performing 
various  dances  and  other  rites  in  his  honor.  The  ser- 
pent would  seem  also  to  come  in  for  a  share  of  their 
reverence,  their  tribal  sign  in  the  gesture  speech  of 
the  plain  being  that  for  a  snake,*  and  indeed  they 
are  often  called  Snake  Indians.  Not  less  interesting 
is  it  to  find  throughout  all  these  tribes,  Ute  and  Co- 
manche,  the  deification  of  the  coyote,  which  occupies 
so  prominent  a  niche  in  the  pantheon  of  the  Aztecan 
tribes  and  those  who  have  borrowed  from  them.  Ac- 
cording to  the  Ute  myths,  the  wolf  and  the  coyote 
were  the  first  two  brothers  from  whom  the  race  had 
its  origin,  and  to  the  latter  were  attributed  all  the 
good  things  in  the  world. 

*  W.  P.  Clark,  The  Indian  Sign  Language,  p.  1 18. 


BUILDERS  OF  THE  CASAS  GRANDES.  123 

As  we  approach  the  southern  border  of  the  group, 
the  stage  of  culture  becomes  higher.  The  natives  of 
the  Pueblo  of  Moqui,  whose  curious  serpent-worship 
has  been  so  well  described  by  Captain  Bourke,*  are 
of  this  stock,  and  illustrate  its  capacity  for  develop- 
ing a  respectable  civilization.  The  Kizh  and  Netela, 
who  were  attached  to  the  mission  of  San  Capistrano, 
were  also  Shoshonees. 

b.     The  Sonoran  Branch. 

In  the  valley  of  the  Gila  river  the  Shoshonian  and 
Sonoran  branches  of  the  Uto-Aztecan  stock  were  in 
contact  from  time  immemorial.  The  Sonoran 
branch  begins  on  the  north  with  the  Pimas,  who  oc- 
cupied the  middle  valley  of  the  Gila,  and  the  land 
south  of  it  quite  to  the  Rio  Yaqui.  I  continue  for  it 
the  name  of  Sonoran  given  by  Buschmann,  although 
it  extended  far  beyond  the  bounds  of  that  province. 

The  Pima  tribe  merits  our  special  attention,  be- 
cause of  the  remarkable  ruins  and  relics  of  a  dense 
former  population,  sedentary  and  agricultural,  in  the 
region  inhabited  by  it  when  the  river  basin  was  first 
explored.  These  are  the  large  structures  known  as 
the  Great  Houses  or  Casas  Grandes,  and  the  remains 
of  the  numerous  towns,  extensive  irrigating  trenches, 
and  ruined  enclosures,  brought  to  light  by  the  Hem- 
enway  exploring  expedition  in  the  Salt  river  valley. 
Their  walls  were  built  of  adobes  or  sun-dried  bricks 
of  large  size,  the  clay  probably  placed  in  baskets 
upon  the  wall  and  allowed  to  dry  there.  The  extent 

*  The  Snake  Dance  of  the  Moquis  of  Arizona.  By  John  G. 
Bourke.  ( New  York,  1884. ) 


124  THE  AMERICAN   RACE. 

of  these  remains  is  surprising,  and  in  the  Salt  river 
valley  alone,  in  an  area  of  half  a  million  acres,  it  is 
estimated  that  two  hundred  thousand  people  may 
have  found  support.  Making  every  allowance,  there 
is  no  doubt  that  at  some  remote  epoch  the  arable  land 
in  the  valleys  of  the  Gila  and  its  affluents  was  under 
close  cultivation. 

Who  these  busy  planters  were  has  supplied  material 
for  much  speculation.  As  usual,  the  simplest  ex- 
planation has  been  the  last  to  be  welcomed.  In  fact, 
there  is  no  occasion  for  us  to  look  elsewhere  than  to 
the  ancestors  of  these  Pimas,  who  lived  in  the  valley 
when  the  whites  first  traveled  it.  There  is  nothing 
in  the  ruins  and  relics  which  demands  a  higher  cul- 
ture than  the  Pimas  possessed.  There  is  no  sign  of  a 
knowledge  of  metals  beyond  hammered  copper;  the 
structures  are  such  as  the  Pueblo  Indians  of  the  same 
stock  live  in  now ;  and  the  Pimas  have  a  historic 
tradition  which  claims  these  ruins  and  these  old 
fields  as  the  work  of  their  ancestors,  from  which  they 
were  driven  by  the  repeated  attacks  of  the  Apaches 
and  other  savage  tribes  of  the  north.*  Some  of  them, 
a  sub-tribe  called  the  Sobaypuris  (Sabaguis),  and 
doubtless  many  others,  took  refuge  in  the  deep  canons 
and  constructed  along  their  precipitous  sides  those 
"  cliff  houses,"  which  have  been  often  described. 
About  a  hundred  years  ago  the  Apaches  drove  them 
out  of  these  last  resorts  and  forced  them  to  flee  to  the 

*For  these  legends  see  Captain  F.  E.  Grossman,  U.  S.  A.,  in 
Report  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  pp.  407-10.  They  attribute 
the  Casas  Grandes  to  Sivano,  a  famous  warrior,  the  direct  des- 
cendant of  Soho,  the  hero  of  their  flood  myth. 


SONORAN   TRIBES.  125 

main  body  of  the  Pimas  in  the  south.*  In  conclu- 
sion, we  may  safely  attribute  most  of  the  ruins  in  the 
Gila  Basin,  as  well  as  most  of  the  cliff  houses  in  the 
various  caflons,  to  these  tribes  of  the  Uto-Aztecan 
stock.  When  the  early  missionaries  reached  the 
Pimas  they  found  them  in  precisely  the  condition  of 
culture  of  which  we  see  the  remains  in  the  Salt 
River  valley.  Their  houses  were  built  of  large 
adobes,  sometimes  roofed  with  tiles  ;  they  were  agri- 
cultural and  industrious  ;  their  fields  were  irrigated 
by  like  extensive  canals  or  trenches,  and  their 
weapons,  utensils  and  clothing  were  just  such  as  the 
Hemenway  expedition  showed  were  those  of  the  early 
accolents  of  the  Gila  and  the  Salado.f 

Most  of  the  other  tribes  of  this  group  were,  from 
the  first  knowledge  we  have  of  them,  inclined  to  sed- 
entary and  agricultural  lives.  The  Opatas,  on  the 
head-waters  of  the  Rio  Yaqui,  and  the  Tarahumaras, 
in  the  valleys  of  the  Sierra  Madre,  are  quiet,  laborious 
peoples,  who  accepted  without  difficulty  the  teachings 
of  the  early  missionaries.  They  cultivate  the  ground 
and  build  houses  of  adobes  or  of  wood  plastered. 

The  Tehuecos,  Zuaques,  Mayos  and  Yaquis  are  sub- 
tribes  of  the  Cahitas,  and  speak  a  dialect  the  most 
akin  of  any  to  the  Nahuatl.  They  are  tall,  vigor- 
ous men,  active  and  laborious,  trading  in  salt  and 

*  The  Apaches  called  them  Tze-tinne,  Stone  House  People.  See 
Capt.  John  G.  Bourke,  Journal  of  American  Folk-Lore,  1890,  p. 
1 14.  The  Apaches  Tontos  were  the  first  to  wander  down  the  Little 
Colorado  river. 

t  See  the  descriptions  of  the  Nevomes  (Pimas)  in  Perez  de  Ribas, 
Historia  de  los  Triumphos  de  Nuestra  Santa  fe,  Lib.  VI.,  cap.  2. 
(Madrid,  1645.) 


126  THE  AMERICAN   RACE. 

woolen  stuffs,  cheerful,  and  much  given  to  music. 
South  of  the  Tarahumaras  and  immediately  adjoin- 
ing them,  in  the  State  of  Chihuahua,  are  the  Tepe- 
huanas  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Sierra  Madre, 
from  25°  to  27°  latitude  north.  They  are  a  people 
of  unusual  intelligence,  of  excellent  memory,  and 
when  first  met  were  living  in  solid  houses  of  logs  or 
of  stone  and  clay,  or  as  genuine  troglodytes  in  arti- 
ficial caves,  and  cultivating  abundant  crops  of  maize 
and  cotton,  which  latter  they  wove  and  dyed  with 
much  skill.*  The  chroniclers  speak  of  them  as  the 
most  valiant  of  all  the  tribes  of  New  Spain,  but 
laborious  and  devoted  to  their  fields.f 

The  tribe  of  the  Sonoran  group  which  reached  the 
point  furthest  to  the  south  was  the  Coras,  who  dwelt 
in  the  Sierra  of  Nayarit,  in  the  State  of  Jalisco.  From 
their  location  they  are  sometimes  called  Nayerits. 
They  were  a  warlike  but  agricultural  people,  about 
the  same  level  as  the  Tepehuanas. 

The  Tubares  were  a  peaceable  nation  living  in  the 
Sierra  of  Sinaloa.  They  received  the  missionaries 
willingly  and  seem  to  have  been  an  industrious  tribe, 
their  principal  object  of  commerce  being  articles  of 
clothing.  It  is  said  that  they  spoke  two  entirely  distinct 
languages,  one  a  dialect  of  Nahuatl,  the  other  of  un- 

*  "  Las  casas  eran  o  de  madera,  y  palos  de  monte,  o  de  pierlra  y 
barro  ;  y  sus  poblaciones  unas  rancherias,  a  modo  de  casilas. " 
Ribas,  Historia  de  los  Triumphos  de  Nuestra  Santa  Fe,  Lib.  X., 
cap.  I.  (Madrid,  1645.) 

t  Torquemada,  Monarquia  Indiana,  Lib.  V.,  cap.  44.  An  inter- 
esting sketch  of  the  recent  condition  of  these  tribes  is  given  by 
C.  A.  Pajeken,  Reise-Emnnerungen,  pp.  91-98.  (Bremen,  1861.) 


SONORAN  TRIBES.  I2/ 

known  affinities.*  The  Guazapares  and  the  Varogios 
are  described  as  living  near  the  Tubares,  on  the  head- 
waters of  the  Rio  del  Fuerte,  and  speaking  the  same 
or  a  similar  dialect. f 

In  the  defiles  of  the  lofty  range,  which  is  sometimes 
called  the  Sierra  de  Topia,  resided  the  Acaxees, 
Xiximes  and  other  wild  tribes,  speaking  related 
tongues.  By  some  authorities  they  are  alleged  to  be- 
long to  the  Sonoran  group,  but  as  the  material  is 
lacking  for  comparison,  their  ethnographic  position 
must  be  left  undetermined. 

The  Guaymas,  on  the  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Califor- 
nia, south  of  the  Ceris  (a  Yuma  folk),  have  been  as- 
certained by  Mr.  Pinart  to  speak  a  dialect  allied  to  that 
of  the  southern  Pimas,  and  are  therefore  to  be  added 
to  this  group.  Another  Pima  dialect  was  the  Baco- 
rehui,  spoken  by  the  Batucaris  and  Comoparis  on  the 
lower  Rio  del  Fuerte  ;  as  it  was  also  that  of  the 
Ahomes,  a  distinctly  Pima  people. :£ 

The  uniform  tradition  of  all  the  tribes  of  this  stock 
in  Sonora  and  Sinaloa,  so  far  as  they  were  obtained 
by  the  early  missionaries,  was  to  the  effect  that  their 
ancestors  had  migrated  from  localities  further  to  the 
north.  || 

*  Perez  de  Ribas,  Historia,  etc.,  Lib.  II.,  cap.  33. 

f  Eustaquio  Buelna,  Peregrinacion  de  los  Aztecas  y  Nombres 
Geograficos  Indigenas  de  Sinaloa^  p.  20.  (Mexico,  1887.) 

\  Buelna,  loc.  cit.,  p.  21. 

||  Father  Perez  de  Ribas,  who  collected  these  traditions  with  care, 
reports  this  fact.  Historia  de  los  Triumphos,  etc.,  Lib.  I.,  cap.  19. 


128  THE   AMERICAN    RACE. 

c.   The  Nahuatl  Branch* 

Under  the  term  Nahuas,  which  has  the  excellent 
authority  of  Sahagun  in  its  favor,  I  shall  include  all 
the  tribes  of  the  Uto-Aztecan  stock  who  spoke  the 
Nahuatl  language,  that  called  by  Buschmann  the 
Aztec,  and  often  referred  to  as  the  Mexican.  These 
tribes  occupied  the  slope  of  the  Pacific  coast  from 
about  the  Rio  del  Fuerte  in  Sinaloa,  N.  lat.  26°,  to 
the  frontiers  of  Guatemala,  except  a  portion  at  the 
isthmus  of  Tehuantepec.  Beyond  this  line,  they  had 
colonies  under  the  name  of  Pipiles  on  the  coast  of 
Guatemala,  and  in  the  interior  the  Alaguilacs.  The 
Cuitlatecos,  or  Tecos,  "  dung-hill  people,"  was  a 
term  of  depreciation  applied  to  those  in  Michoacan 
and  Guerrero.  On  the  borders  of  the  lakes  in  the 
valley  of  Mexico  were  the  three  important  states 
Tezcuco,  Tlacopan  and  Tenochtitlan,  who  at  the 
time  of  the  conquest  were  formed  into  a  confederacy 
of  wide  sway. 

The  last  mentioned,  Tenochtitlan,  had  its  chief 
town  where  the  city  of  Mexico  now  stands,  and  its 
inhabitants  were  the  Azteca.  East  of  the  valley  were 
the  Tlascaltecs,  an  independent  tribe  ;  south  of  and 
along  the  shore  of  the  gulf  from  Vera  Cruz  almost  to 
the  mouth  of  the  Rio  de  Grijalva,  were  Nahuatl  tribes 
under  the  dominion  of  the  confederacy.  An  isolated, 
but  distinctly  affiliated  band,  had  wandered  down  to 
Nicaragua,  where  under  the  name  Nicaraos  they 
were  found  on  the  narrow  strip  of  land  between  Lake 
Nicaragua  and  the  Pacific,  which  they  had  conquered 
from  tribes  of  Chapanec  lineage.  The  most  distant 
of  all  were  the  Seguas,  who  at  the  time  of  the  con- 


THE   FABULOUS   TOLTECS. 

quest  resided  in  the  Valle  Coaza,  on  the  Rio  Telorio, 
and  later  moved  to  Chiriqui  Lagoon.  After  the 
conquest  they  were  scattered  still  further  by  the 
transportation  of  colonies  of  Tlascalans  to  Saltillo 
in  the  north,  and  to  Isalco  in  San  Salvador  in  the 
south. 

I  omit  entirely  from  this  group  the  Toltecs  and  the 
Chichimecs.  These  were  never  tribal  designations, 
and  it  is  impossible  to  identify  them  with  any  known 
communities.  The  Toltecs  may  have  been  one  of 
the  early  and  unimportant  gentes  of  the  Azteca,  but 
even  this  is  doubtful.  The  term  was  properly  ap- 
plied to  the  inhabitants  of  the  small  town  of  Tula, 
north  of  the  valley  of  Mexico.  In  later  story  they 
were  referred  to  as  a  mythical  people  of  singular  gifts 
and  wide  domain.  Modern  and  uncritical  writers 
have  been  misled  by  these  tales,  and  have  repre- 
sented the  Toltecs  as  a  potent  nation  and  ancestors 
of  the  Aztecs.  There  is  no  foundations  for  such 
statements,  and  they  have  no  historic  position.* 

The  term  Chichimeca  was  applied  to  many  bar- 
barous hordes  as  a  term  of  contempt,  "  dogs,"  "  dog 
people."  f  It  has  no  ethnic  signification,  and  never 


*  See  "  The  Toltecs  and  their  Fabulous  Empire,"  in  my  Essays 
of  an  Americanist,  pp.  83-100. 

t  There  is  an  interesting  anonymous  MS.  in  the  Fond  Espagnol 
of  the  Bibliotheque  Nationale  at  Paris,  with  the  title  La  Guerra. 
de  los  Chichimecas.  The  writer  explains  the  name  as  a  generic 
term  applied  to  any  tribe  without  settled  abode,  ' '  vagos,  sin  casa 
ni  sementera."  He  instances  the  Pamis,  the  Guachichiles  and  the 
Guamaumas  as  Chichimeca,  though  speaking  quite  different  lan- 
guages. 
9 


130  THE    AMERICAN    RACE. 

had,  but  was  used  in  much  the  same  way  as  Cuitlateca, 
above  referred  to.* 

The  government  of  these  states  did  not  differ  in 
principle  from  that  of  the  northern  tribes,  though  its 
development  had  reached  a  later  stage.  Descent  was 
generally  reckoned  in  the  male  line,  and  the  male 
children  of  the  deceased  were  regarded  as  the  natural 
heirs  both  to  his  property  and  his  dignities.  Where 
the  latter,  however,  belonged  rather  to  the  gens 
than  the  individual,  a  form  of  election  was  held,  the 
children  of  the  deceased  being  given  the  preference. 
In  this  sense,  which  was  the  usual  limitation  in 
America,  many  positions  were  hereditary,  including 
that  of  the  chieftaincy  of  the  tribe  or  confederation. 
The  Montezuma  who  was  the  ruler  who  received 
Cortez,  was  the  grandson  of  Axayacatl,  who  in  turn 
was  the  son  of  the  first  Montezuma,  each  of  whom 
exercised  the  chief  power. 

The  land  was  held  by  the  gens  and  allotted  to  its 
members  for  cultivation.  Marriage  was  also  an  affair 
regulated  by  the  gentile  laws  of  consanguinity,  but 
the  position  of  woman  was  not  specially  inferior,  and 
in  the  instance  of  the  daughter  of  the  first  Monte- 
zuma, one  seems  to  have  occupied  the  position  of 
head  chief  for  a  time. 

The  general  condition  of  the  arts  in  ancient  Mexico 
is  familiar  to  all  who  have  turned  their  attention  to 
American  history.  It  has  indeed  received  more  than 

*"  Cuitlail,=mierda  "  (Molina,  Vocabulario  Mexicancf).  Cuitl- 
atlan,  Ort  des  Kothes  (Buschmann,  Aztekische  Ortsnamen,  s.  621), 
applied  to  the  region  between  Michoacan  and  the  Pacific  ;  also  to 
a  locality  near  Techan  iri  the  province  of  Guerfefo  (Orozco  y  Berra, 
Geog.  de  las  Lenguas,  p.  233). 


MEXICAN     CULTURE.  13! 

its  due  share  of  attention  from  the  number  and  prom- 
inence of  the  Nahuas  at  the  conquest.  They  were 
little  if  at  all  superior  to  many  of  their  neighbors  in 
cultural  progress.  Even  in  architecture,  where  they 
excelled,  the  Zapotecs,  Totonacos  and  Tarascos  were 
but  little  behind  them.  Numerous  artificial  pyra- 
mids and  structures  of  hewn  stone  remain  in  the  ter- 
ritories of  all  these  to  prove  their  skill  as  builders. 
The  Mexicans  may  be  said  to  have  reached  the  age 
of  bronze.  Many  weapons,  utensils  and  implements, 
were  manufactured  of  this  alloy  of  copper  and  tin. 
Gold,  silver,  lead  and  copper,  were  likewise  deftly 
worked  by  founding  and  smelting  into  objects  of 
ornament  or  use.  Lead  was  also  known,  but  not 
utilized.  The  majority  of  implements  continued  to 
be  of  stone.  They  were  fortunate  in  having  for  this 
purpose  a  most  excellent  material,  obsidian,  which 
volcanic  product  is  abundant  in  Mexico.  From  it 
they  flaked  off  arrow  points,  knives  and  scrapers,  and 
by  polishing  worked  it  into  labrets  and  mirrors.  A 
variety  of  nephrite  or  jade  was  highly  esteemed,  and 
some  of  the  most  elaborate  specimens  of  Mexican  art 
in  stone  are  in  this  hard,  greenish  material.  Frag- 
ments of  colored  stones  were  set  in  mosaic,  either  as 
masks,  knife  handles  or  the  like,  with  excellent  effect. 
With  the  undoubtedly  dense  population  of  many 
districts,  the  tillage  of  the  ground  was  a  necessary 
source  of  the  food  supply.  The  principal  crop  was  as 
usual  maize,  but  beans,  peppers,  gourds  and  fruit 
were  also  cultivated.  Cotton  was  largely  employed 
for  clothing,  being  neatly  woven  and  dyed  in  brilliant 
colors. 


J32  THE    AMERICAN   RACE. 

The  religious  rites  were  elaborate  and  prescribed 
with  minuteness.  Priests  and  priestesses  were  vowed 
to  the  cult  of  certain  deities.  Their  duties  consisted 
in  sweeping  and  decorating  the  temples,  in  preparing 
the  sacrifices,  and  in  chanting  at  certain  periods  of 
the  day  and  night.  The  offerings  were  usually  of 
quails,  rabbits  or  flowers,  but,  especially  in  Tenoch- 
titlan,  human  sacrifices  were  not  infrequent.  The 
victims  were  slaves  or  captives  taken  in  war.  At 
times  their  flesh  was  distributed  to  the  votaries,  and 
was  consumed  as  part  of  the  ceremony  ;  but  as  this 
was  a  rite,  the  Aztecs  cannot  be  said  to  have  been 
anthropophagous. 

The  priestly  class  had  charge  of  the  education  of 
the  youth  of  the  better  class.  This  was  conducted 
with  care  and  severity.  Large  buildings  were  set 
apart  for  the  purpose,  some  for  boys,  others  for  girls. 
The  boys  were  taught  martial  exercises,  the  history 
of  the  nation,  the  chants  and  dances  of  the  religious 
worship,  forms  of  salutation,  the  art  of  writing,  etc. 
The  girls  were  instructed  in  household  duties,  the 
preparation  of  food,  the  manufacture  of  garments, 
and  the  morals  of  domestic  life.* 

The  literature  which  represented  this  education 
was  large.  It  was  preserved  in  books  written  upon 
parchment,  or  upon  paper  manufactured  from  the 
fibrous  leaves  of  the  maguey.  This  was  furnished  in 
great  quantities  from  different  parts  of  the  realm,  as 
much  as  24,000  bundles  being  required  by  the  gov- 

*  Dr.  Gustav  Briihl  believes  these  schools  were  limited  to  those 
designed  for  warriors  or  the  priesthood.  Sahagun  certainly  assigns 
them  a  wider  scope.  See  Briihl,  Die  Calturvolker  Alt-Amerikas^ 
PP-  337-8. 


AZTEC   WRITING.  133 

ernment  annually  as  tribute.  A  book  consisted  of  a 
strip  of  paper  perhaps  twenty  feet  long,  folded  like  a 
screen  into  pages  about  six  inches  wide,  on  both  sides 
of  which  were  painted  the  hieroglyphic  characters. 
These  were  partly  ideographic,  partly  phonetic ;  the 
latter  were  upon  the  principle  of  the  rebus,  convey- 
ing the  name  or  word  by  the  representation  of  some 
object,  the  word  for  which  had  a  similar  sound.  I 
have  called  this  the  ikonomatic  method  of  writing, 
and  have  explained  it  in  detail  in  several  essays  on 
the  subject.* 

Their  calendar  recognized  the  length  of  the  year 
as  365  days.  The  mathematical  difficulties  in  the 
way  of  a  complete  understanding  of  it  have  not  yet 
been  worked  out,  and  it  may  have  differed  in  the 
various  tribes.  Its  elements  were  a  common  property 
of  all  the  Nahua  peoples,  as  well  as  many  of  their 
neighbors ;  which  of  them  first  devised  it  has  not  been 
ascertained. 

UTO-AZTECAN  LINGUISTIC  STOCK. 
a.    Shoshonian  Branch. 

Bannacks,  in  Montana  and  southern  Idaho. 

Cahuillos,  in  southern  California. 

Chemehuevis,  branch  of  Pi-utes,  on  Cottonwood  Island. 

Comanches,  in  northern  Texas,  on  both  banks  of  Rio  Grande. 

Kauvuyas,  southern  California,  near  the  Pacific. 

Kechis,  in  southern  California,  branch  of  Kauvuyas. 

Kizh,  in  southern  California,  branch  of  Kauvuyas. 

Moquis,  in  Moqui  Pueblo,  Arizona. 

Netelas,  in  southern  California. 

Pa-  Vants,  south  of  Great  Salt  Lake. 

*See  "  The  Ikonomatic  Method  of  Phonetic  Writing  "  in  my 
Essays  of  an  Americanist,  p.  213.  (Philadelphia,  1890.) 


134  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

Pi-utes,  in  southern  and  central  Nevada,  Arizona,  California, 
Utah. 

Shoshonees  or  Snakes,  in  New  Mexico  and  Colorado,  Idaho  and 
southern  Oregon. 

Utes  or  Utahs,  in  Utah,  Colorado,  New  Mexico,  etc. 

Wihinashl,  in  Oregon,  south  of  Columbia  river. 

b.   Sonoran  Branch* 

Acaxees,  (?)  in  the  Sierra  deTopia. 
Cahitas,  south  of  Rio  Yaqui. 
Coras,  in  the  Sierra  de  Nayarit. 
Eudeves,  a  sub-tribe  of  Opatas. 
Guaymas,  on  Rio  de  Guaymas. 
May os,  on  R.  Mayo,  sub-tribe  of  Cahitas. 
Nevomes,  see  Pimas. 
Opatas,  head-waters  of  Rio  Yaqui. 
Papayas,  or  Papagos,  sub-tribe  of  Pimas. 
Pimas,  from  Rio  Yaqui  to  Rio  Gila. 
Sabag'uis,  sub-tribe  of  Pimas. 
Tarahumaras,  in  the  Sierra  of  Chihuahua. 
Tehuecos,  on  R.  del  Fuerte,  dialect  of  Cahita. 
Tecoripas,  speak  dialect  of  Pinia. 
Tcpehuanas,  in  Durango. 
Tubares,  in  upper  Sinaloa. 
Yaquis,  on  Rio  Yaqui. 

c.  Nahuatlecan  Branch. 

Alaguilacs,  on  Rio  Motagua  in  Guatemala. 

Aztecs,  in  the  valley  of  Mexico. 

Cuitlatecos,  south  and  west  of  Michoacan. 

Mexicans,  see  Aztecs. 

Meztitlatecas,  in  the  Sierra  of  Meztitlan. 

Nicaraos,  in  Nicaragua  between  Lake  Nicaragua  and  the  Pacific. 

Niquirans,  see  Nicaraos. 

Pipiles,  on  Pacific  coast  in  Soconusco  and  Guatemala. 

Seguas,  near  Chiriqui  Lagoon. 

Tecos,  see  Cuitlatecos. 

Tezcucans,  in  valley  of  Mexico. 

Tlascalans,  in  Tlascala,  east  of  valley  of  Mexico. 

Tlascaltecans,  in  San  Salvador. 


CULTURE   OF   THE   OTOMIS.  135 

2.    THE   OTOMIS. 

According  to  Aztec  tradition,  the  Otomis  were  the 
earliest  owners  of  the  soil  of  Central  Mexico.  Their 
language  was  at  the  conquest  one  of  the  most  widely 
distributed  of  any  in  this  portion  of  the  continent. 
Its  central  regions  were  the  states  of  Queretaro  and 
Guanajuato ;  from  the  upper  portion  of  the  valley  of 
Mexico  it  extended  north  to  the  Rio  Verde,  on  the 
west  it  adjoined  the  Tarascas  of  Michoacan,  and  on  the 
east  the  Huastecs  of  Panuco. 

The  Otomis  are  below  the  average  stature,  of  dark 
color,  the  skull  markedly  dolichocephalic,*  the  nose 
short  and  flattened,  the  eyes  slightly  oblique.  Fol- 
lowing the  lead  of  some  of  the  old  writers,  modern 
authors  have  usually  represented  the  Otomis  as  rude 
savages,  far  inferior  to  the  Nahuas.  Doubtless  the 
latter  often  so  represented  them,  but  this  does  not 
correspond  with  what  we  learn  of  them  from  other 
sources.  Although  subjected  by  the  Nahuas,  they  do 
not  seem  to  have  been  excessively  ignorant.  Agri- 
culture was  not  neglected,  and  from  their  cotton  the 
women  wove  clothing"  for  both  sexes.  Ornaments  of 
gold,  copper  and  hard  stones  were  in  use;  their  relig- 
ion was  conducted  with  ceremony  ;  f  and  they  were 
famous  for  their  songs  and  musical  ability.^:  The 
members  of  the  nation  to-da)r  are  laborious,  good 
tempered,  and  endowed  with  a  remarkable  aptitude 

*  Four  skulls  in  the  collection  of  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sci- 
ences, Philadelphia,  give  a  cephalic  index  of  73. 

t  Sahagun,  Historia  de  la  Nueva  Espana,  Lib.  X,  cap.  29. 

J  D.  G.  Brinton,  Ancient  Nahuatl  Poetry,  p.  134.  (Philadelphia, 
1887,  in  Library  of  Aboriginal  American  Literature.) 


136  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

for   imitation,    especially   in  sculpture.     Some   of  the 
women  are  quite  handsome.* 

Their  language  has  attracted  a  certain  amount  of 
attention,  partly  from  its  supposed  similarity  to  the 
Chinese,  partly  because  it  is  alleged  to  differ  from 
most  American  tongues  in  showing  no  incorporation. 
Both  of  these  statements  have  been  proved  errone- 
ous.f  It  is  a  tongue  largely  monosyllabic,  of  ex- 
tremely difficult  enunciation,  worn  down  by  attrition 
almost  to  an  isolating  form,  but  not  devoid  of  the 
usual  traits  of  the  languages  of  the  continent.  There 
are  several  dialects,  the  relations  of  which  have  been 
the  subject  of  fruitful  investigations  $ 

OTOMI    LINGUISTIC   STOCK. 

Jonaz,  in  Prov.  of  Queretaro. 

Matlaltzincos,  in  Valley  of  Mexico  and  Mechoacan. 

Mazauhas,  southwest  of  Valley  of  Mexico. 

Mecos,  see  Jonaz. 

Otomis,  throughout  Central  Mexico. 

Fames,  in  Queretaro  and  Guanajuato. 

Pirindas,  see  Matlaltzincos. 

3.   THE   TARASCOS. 

The  Tarascans,  so  called  from  Taras,  the  name  of  a 
tribal  god,||  had  the  reputation  of  being  the  tallest 
and  handsomest  people  of  Mexico. 

*E.  G.  Tarayre,  Explorations  des  Regions  Mexicaines,  p.  282. 
(Paris,  1879). 

t  D.  G.  Brinton,  Essays  of  an  Americanist,  p.  366. 

J  H.  de  Charencey,  Melanges  de  Philologie  et  de  Palceographie 
Americaine,  p.  23. 

||  Sahagun,  Historia,  Lib.  X,  cap.  29.  The  name  is  properly 
Tarex,  applied  later  in  the  general  sense  of  "deity,"  "idol." 


THE   TARASCOS.  137 

They  were  the  inhabitants  of  the  present  State  of 
Michoacan,  west  of  the  valley  of  Mexico.  According 
to  their  oldest  traditions,  or  perhaps  those  of  their 
neighbors,  they  had  migrated  from  the  north  in  com- 
pany with,  or  about  the  same  time  as  the  Aztecs. 
For  some  three  hundred  years  before  the  conquest 
they  had  been  a  sedentary,  semi-civilized  people, 
maintaining  their  independence,  and  progressing 
steadily  in  culture.*  When  first  encountered  by  the 
Spaniards  they  were  quite  equal  and  in  some  respects 
ahead  of  the  Nahuas.  The  principal  buildings  of 
their  cities,  the  chief  of  which  was  their  capital 
Tzintzuntan,  were  of  cut  stone  well  laid  in_rnortar. 
A  number  of  remains  of  such  have  been  reported  by 
various  travelers,  many  of  them  being  conical  mounds 
of  dressed  stones,  locally  called  yacates,  which  proba- 
bly are  sepulchral  monuments. f 

In  their  costume  the  Tarascos  differed  considerably 
from  their  neighbors.  The  feather  garments  which 
they  manufactured  surpassed  all  others  in  durability 
and  beauty.  Cotton  was,  however,  the  usual  ma- 
terial. Gold  and  copper  are  found  in  the  mountains 

Tarex  is  identified  by  Sahagun  with  the  Nahuatl  divinity  Mix- 
coatl,  the  god  of  the  storm,  especially  the  thunder  storm.  The 
other  derivations  of  the  name  Tarascos  seem  trivial.  See  Dr. 
Nicolas  Leon,  in  Anales  del  Museo  Michoacano,  Tom.  I.  Their 
ancestors  were  known  as  Taruchas,  in  which  we  see  the  same 
radical. 

*  Dr.  Nicolas  Leon,  of  Morelia,  Michoacan,  whose  studies  of  the 
archaeology  of  his  State  have  been  most  praiseworthy,  places  the 
beginning  of  the  dynasty  at  1200  ;  Anales  del  Museo  Michoacano^ 
Tom.  I.,  p.  116. 

f  From  the  Nahuatl,  yacatl,  point,  apex,  nose  ;  though  other 
derivations  have  been  suggested. 


138  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

of  the  district,  and  both  these  metals  were  worked 
with  skill.  Nowhere  else  do  we  find  such  complete 
defensive  armor;  it  consisted  of  helmet,  body  pieces, 
and  greaves  for  the  legs  and  arms,  all  of  wood  covered 
neatly  with  copper  or  gold  plates,  so  well  done  that 
the  pieces  looked  as  if  they  were  of  solid  metal.* 

A  form  of  picture-writing  was  in  use  in  Michoacan, 
but  no  specimen  of  it  has  been  preserved.  The  cal- 
endar was  nearly  the  same  as  that  in  Mexico,  and  the 
government  apparently  more  absolute  in  form.  Many 
but  confused  details  have  been  preserved  about  their 
religion  and  rites.  There  was  a  mysterious  supreme 
divinity,  Tucapacha,  though  Curicaneri,  who  is  said  to 
have  represented  the  sun,  was  the  deity  chiefly  wor- 
shipped. Large  idols  of  stone  and  many  of  smaller 
size  of  terra  cotta  may  still  be  exhumed  by  the  ener- 
getic archaeologist.  Cremation  was  in  vogue  for  the 
disposition  of  the  dead,  and  human  sacrifices,  both  at 
funerals  and  in  the  celebration  of  religious  rites,  were 
usual. 

The  Tarascan  language  is  harmonious  and  vocalic, 
and  its  grammar  is  thoroughly  American  in  charac- 
ter, the  verb  being  extraordinarily  developed,  the 
substantive  incorporated  in  the  expression  of  action, 
and  the  modifications  of  this  conveyed  by  numerous 
infixes  and  suffixes. 

*  For  numerous  authorities,  see  Bancroft,  Native  Races  of  the 
Pacific  Coast,  vol.  II.,  pp.  407-8;  and  on  the  antiquities  of  the 
country,  Dr.  Leon,  in  the  Anales  del  Museo  Michoacano,  passim, 
and  Beaumont,  Cronica  de  la  Provincla  de  Mechoacan,  Tom.  III., 
p.  87,  sq.  (Mexico,  1874). 


TRIBES   ON   THE   GULF   COAST.  139 

4.   THE   TOTONACOS. 

The  first  natives  whom  Cortes  met  on  landing  in 
Mexico  were  the  Totonacos.  They  occupied  the  ter- 
ritory of  Totonicapan,  now  included  in  the  state 
of  Vera  Cruz.  According  to  traditions  of  their  own, 
they  had  resided  there  eight  hundred  years,  most  of 
which  time  they  were  independent,  though  a  few 
generations  before  the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards  they 
had  been  subjected  by  the  arms  of  the  Montezumas. 
The  course  of  their  early  migrations  they  stated  had 
been  from  the  west  and  northwest,  and  they  claimed 
to  have  been  the  constructors  of  the  remarkable 
pyramids  and  temples  of  Teotihuacan,  ten  miles 
northwest  of  the  city  of  Mexico.  This  boast  we  may 
be  chary  of  believing,  but  they  were  unquestionably 
a  people  of  high  culture.  Sahagun  describes  them 
as  almost  white  in  color,  their  heads  artificially  de- 
formed, but  their  features  regular  and  handsome.* 
Robes  of  cotton  beautifully  dyed  served  them  for 
garments,  and  their  feet  were  covered  with  sandals. 
The  priests  wore  long  black  gowns  with  collars,  so 
that  they  looked  like  Dominican  monks.  The  re- 
ligion which  prevailed  among  them  was  a  sun-wor- 
ship with  elaborate  rites,  among  which  were  the 
circumcision  of  boys  and  a  similar  operation  on  girls. 

These  people  were  highly  civilized.  Cempoalla, 
their  capital  city,  was  situate  about  five  miles  from 
the  sea,  at  the  junction  of  two  streams.  Its  houses 
were  of  brick  and  mortar,  and  each  was  surrounded 
by  a  small  garden,  at  the  foot  of  which  a  stream  of 
fresh  water  was  conducted.  Fruit  trees  and  grain 
*  Sahagun,  Historia  de  la  Nueva  JSspana,  Lib.  X.,  cap.  6. 


I4O  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

fields  filled  the  gardens  and  surrounded  the  city. 
Altogether,  says  the  chronicler,  it  was  like  a  terres- 
trial paradise.*  That  this  description  is  not  over- 
drawn, is  proved  by  the  remarkable  ruins  which 
still  exist  in  this  province,  and  the  abundant  relics 
of  ancient  art  which  have  been  collected  there, 
especially  by  the  efforts  of  Mr.  Hermann  Strebel, 
whose  collections  now  form  part  of  the  Berlin  Ethno- 
graphic Museum.f 

The  affinities  of  the  Totonacos  are  difficult  to  make 
out.  Sahagun  says  that  they  claimed  kinship  with 
the  Huastecs,  their  neighbors  to  the  north,  which 
would  bring  them  into  the  Maya  stock.  Their  lan- 
guage has,  in  fact,  many  words  from  Maya  roots,  but 
it  has  also  many  more  from  the  Nahuatl,  and  its 
grammar  is  more  in  accord  with  the  latter  than  with 
the  former.:}:  Besides  these,  there  is  a  residuum 
which  is  different  from  both.  For  this  reason  I  class 
them  as  an  independent  stock,  of  undetermined  con- 
nections. 

5.   THE   ZAPOTECS   AND   MIXTECS. 

The  greater  part  of  Oaxaca  and  the  neighboring 
regions  are  still  occupied  by  the  Zapotecs,  who  call 
themselves  Didja-Za\  There  are  now  about  265,000 
of  them,  about  fifty  thousand  of  whom  speak  nothing 
but  their  native  tongue.  In  ancient  times  they  con- 

*  Herrera,  Historia  de  las  Indias  Occidentals  >  Dec.  II.,  Lib.  V., 
cap.  8. 

t  Strebel,  Alt-Mexiko. 

|  Pimentel,  Lenguas  Indigenas  de  Mexico,  Tom.  III.,  p.  345,  sq. 
L  ||  From  didja,  language,  za,  the  national  name. 


THE   RUINS   OF   MITLA.  141 

stituted  a  powerful  independent  state,  the  citizens  of 
which  seem  to  have  been  quite  as  highly  civilized  as 
any  member  of  the  Aztecan  family.  They  were 
agricultural  and  sedentary,  living  in  villages  and 
constructing  buildings  of  stone  and  mortar.  The 
most  remarkable,  but  by  no  means  the  only  speci- 
mens of  these  still  remaining  are  the  ruins  of  Mitla, 
called  by  the  natives  Ryo  Ba,  the  "  entrance  to  the 
sepulchre,"  the  traditional  belief  being  that  these  im- 
posing monuments  are  sepulchres  of  their  ancestors.* 
These  ruins  consist  of  thirty-nine  houses,  some  of 
adobe,  but  most  of  stone,  and  two  artificial  hills. 
The  stone  houses  have  thick  walls  of  rough  stone 
and  mortar,  faced  with  polished  blocks  arranged  in  a 
variety  of  symmetrical  patterns,  such  as  are  called 
grecques.  Sometimes  these  patterns  are  repeated  on 
the  inner  walls,  but  more  frequently  these  were 
plastered  with  a  hard  white  coat  and  painted  an 
Indian  red,  with  numerous  figures,  These  delinea- 
tions are  on  a  par  with  those  from  the  valley  of 
Mexico  and  the  ancient  cities  of  Yucatan,  and  reveal 
much  the  same  technique.  One  of  the  rooms  is 
called  the  "  hall  of  the  columns,"  from  six  round 
monolithic  columns  nearly  ten  feet  in  height,  which 
were  intended  to  support  a  roof  of  heavy  stone  slabs. 
The  Mixtecs  adjoined  the  Zapotecs  to  the  west, 
extending  along  the  coast  of  the  Pacific  to  about  the 
present  port  of  Acapulco.  In  culture  they  were 

*  Mr.  A.  Bandelier,  in  his  careful  description  of  these  ruins  (Re- 
port of  an  Archaeological  Tour  in  Mexico,  Boston,  1884)  spells 
this  Lyo-ba.  But  an  extensive  MS.  Vocabulario  Zapoteco  in  my 
possession  gives  the  orthography  riyoo  baa. 


342  THE  AMERICAN    RACE. 

equal  to  the  Zapotecs ;  having  a  preference  for  an 
agricultural  life,  constructing  residences  of  brick  and 
stone  and  acquainted  with  a  form  of  picture  or  hiero- 
glyphic writing,  in  which  they  perpetuated  the  mem- 
ory of  their  elaborate  mythology.*  They  pretended 
to  have  taken  their  name  from  Mixtecatl,  one  of  the 
seven  heroes  who  set  out  from  Chicomoztoc,  "  the 
land  of  seven  caves,"  far  in  the  north,  and  at  other 
times  pretended  descent  from  the  fabulous  Toltecs, 
claims  which  Sahagun  intimates  were  fictions  of  the 
Nahuas  living  among  them.f 

The  Zapotecs  made  use  of  a  calendar,  the  outlines 
of  which  have  been  preserved.  It  is  evidently  upon 
the  same  astronomical  theory  as  the  Mexican,  as  was 
their  system  of  enumeration.  Their  language  is  not 
inharmonious.  It  is  called  the  ticJia  za,  "  language  of 
the  noble  people." 

ZAPOTEC-MIXTEC  LINGUISTIC  STOCK. 

Amusgos,  in  Guerrero. 

ChaiinoS)  in  Oaxaca,  department  of  Jamiltepec. 
Chuchonas,  on  borders  of  Oaxaca  and  Guerrero. 
Cuicatecos,  in  Oaxaca,  department  of  Teotilan. 
Mazalecos,  in  Oaxaca,  near  boundary  of  Puebla,  in  ancient  prov- 
ince of  Mazatlan. 

Mixtecos,  in  Oaxaca  and  Guerrero. 
Papabucos,  in  Oaxaca. 
Soltecos,  in  Oaxaca. 
Zapotecos,  in  Oaxaca. 

*  Garcia,   Origen  de  los  Indies,  Lib.  V.,  cap.  IV.,  gives  a  lengthy 
extract  from  one  of  their  hieroglyphic  mythological  books. 

t  Sahagun,  Hlstoria  de  la  Nueva  E$paftat  Lib.  X.,  cap.  VI. 


TRIBES   OF    TEHUANTEPEC.  143 

6.   THE    ZOQUES   AND    MIXES. 

The  mountain  regions  of  the  isthmus  of  Tehuante- 
pec  and  adjacent  portions  of  the  states  of  Chiapas 
and  Oaxaca  are  the  habitats  of  the  Zoques,  Mixes,  and 
allied  tribes.  The  early  historians  draw  a  terrible 
picture  of  their  valor,  savagery  and  cannibalism, 
which  reads  more  like  tales  to  deter  the  Spaniards 
from  approaching  their  domains  than  truthful  ac- 
counts.* However  this  may  be,  they  have  been  for 
hundreds  of  years  a  peaceful,  ignorant,  timid  part  of 
the  population,  homely,  lazy  and  drunken,  but  not 
violent  or  dangerous.  The  Mixes  especially  cultivate 
abundance  of  maize  and  beans,  and  take  an  interest 
in  improving  the  roads  leading  to  their  towns.f 

The  faint  traditions  of  these  peoples  pointed  to  the 
south  for  their  origin.  When  they  lived  in  Chiapas 
they  were  conquered  by  the  Chapanecs  (Mangues), 
and  this  induced  many  of  them  to  seek  independence 
in  the  Sierra  to  the  north  and  west.  At  present  the 
main  village  of  the  Mixes  is  San  Juan  Guichicovi, 
while  the  Zoques  are  scattered  between  the  Rio  del 
Corte  and  the  Rio  Chiapa.  They  are  described  as 
agricultural  and  laborious,  but  also  as  stupid,  in- 
clined to  drunkenness,  and  very  homely.  ^ 

A  comparison  of  the  two  languages  leaves  no  doubt 
as  to  their  derivation  from  a  common  stem. 

*  Herrera,  Historia  de  las  Indias  Occidentals.  Dec.  IV.,  Lib. 
X.,  cap.  7. 

\  Explorations  and  Surveys  of  the  Isthnius  of  Tehuantepec^  pp. 
126-7.  (Washington,  1872.) 

J  J.  G»  Barnard,  The  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec,  pp.  224,  225. 
(New  York,  1853.) 


144  THE  AMERICAN    RACE. 

ZOQUE  LINGUISTIC  STOCK. 

Chimalapas,  a  sub-tribe  of  Zoques. 

Mixes,  in  Oaxaca,  and  on  the  Isthmus. 

Tapijulapanes,  on  Rio  de  la  Sierra. 

Zoques,  in  eastern  Tabasco,  Chiapas  and  Oaxaca. 

7.   THE    CHINANTECS. 

The  Chinantecs  inhabited  Chinantla,  which  is  a 
part  of  the  state  of  Oaxaca,  situated  in  the  Sierra 
Madre,  on  the  frontiers  of  the  province  of  Vera  Cruz. 
Their  neighbors  on  the  south  were  the  Zapotecs  and 
Mixes,  and  on  the  north  and  east  the  Nahuas.  They 
lived  in  secluded  valleys  and  on  rough  mountain  sides, 
and  their  language  was  one  of  great  difficulty  to  the 
missionaries  on  account  of  its  harsh  phonetics. 
Nevertheless,  Father  Barreda  succeeded  in  writing  a 
Doctrina  in  it,  published  in  1730,  the  only  work 
which  has  ever  appeared  in  the  tongue.  The  late 
Dr.  Berendt  devoted  considerable  study  to  it,  and 
expressed  his  conclusions  in  the  following  words : 
"  Spoken  in  the  midst  of  a  diversity  of  languages 
connected  more  or  less  among  themselves,  it  is  itself 
unconnected  with  them,  and  is  rich  in  peculiar  feat- 
ures both  as  to  its  roots  and  its  grammatical  structure. 
It  is  probable  that  we  have  in  it  one  of  the  original 
languages  spoken  before  the  advent  of  the  Nahuas  on 
Mexican  soil,  perhaps  the  mythical  Olmecan."  * 

The  Chinantecs  had  been  reduced  by  the  Aztecs 
and  severely  oppressed  by  them.  Hence  they  wel- 
comed the  Spaniards  as  deliverers.  Their  manners 
were  savage  and  their  disposition  warlike. f  Other 

*  Apuntes  sobre  la  Lengua  Chinenteca,  MS. 
fHerrera,  Hist,  de  las  Indias  Occideittales.    Dec.  III.,  Lib.  III., 
cap.  15. 


HISTORICAL   TRADITIONS.  145 

names  by  which  they    are  mentioned  are   Tenez  and 
Teutecas. 

8.    THE  CHAPANECS  AND  MANGUES. 

In  speaking  of  the  province  of  Chiapas  the  historian 
Herrera  informs  us  that  it  derived  its  name  from  the 
pueblo  so-called,  "  whose  inhabitants  were  the  most 
remarkable  in  New  Spain  for  their  traits  and  incli- 
nations." *  They  had  early  acquired  the  art  of 
horsemanship,  they  were  skillful  in  all  kinds  of 
music,  excellent  painters,  carried  on  a  variety  of  arts, 
and  were  withal  very  courteous  to  each  other. 

One  tradition  was  that  they  had  reached  Chiapas 
from  Nicaragua,  and  had  conquered  the  territory 
they  possessed  from  the  Zoques,  some  of  whom  they 
had  rendered  tributary,  while  others  had  retired 
further  into  the  Sierra.  But  the  more  authentic 
legend  of  the  Chapas  or  Chapanecs,  as  they  were 
properly  called  from  their  totem ic  bird  the  Chapa, 
the  red  macaw,  recited  that  their  whole  stock  moved 
down  from  a  northern  latitude,  following  the  Pacific 
coast  until  they  came  to  Soconusco,  where  they 
divided,  one  part  entering  the  mountains  of  Chiapas, 
the  other  proceeding  on  to  Nicaragua,  where  we  find 
them  under  the  name  of  Mangues,  or  Chorotegans, 
along  the  shores  of  Lake  Managua. f  Here  they  oc- 
cupied a  number  of  populous  villages,  estimated  by 
the  historian  Oviedo  to  contain  about  forty  thousand 
souls4  They  were  agricultural  and  sedentary,  and 

*  Herrera,  Historia  de  las  Indias  Occidentales.     Dec.  IV.,  Lib. 
X.,  cap.  ii. 
f  Gregoria  Garcia,  Origen  de  los  Indios,  Lib.  V. ,  cap.  v. 

J  Oviedo,  Historia  General  de  las  Indias,  Lib.  XLIL,  cap.  5. 
IO 


146  THE  AMERICAN   RACE. 

moderately  civilized,  that  is,  they  had  hieroglyphic 
books,  wove  and  spun  cotton,  were  skilled  in  pottery 
and  had  fixed  government.  They  are  described  as 
lighter  in  color  than  most  Indians,  and  wearing  long 
hair  carefully  combed.  A  small  band  wandered  still 
further  south,  to  the  vicinity  of  Chiriqui  Lagoon.* 

The  Chapanec  language  is  one  of  marked  individu- 
ality. Its  phonetics  are  harmonious,  but  with  many 
obscure  and  fluctuating  sounds.  In  its  grammatical 
construction  we  find  a  singular  absence  of  distinction 
between  subject  and  object.  While  the  appreciation 
of  number  in  the  form  of  nouns  is  almost  absent, 
their  relations  are  expressed  with  excessive  particu- 
larity, so  that  a  noun  may  have  different  forms,  as  it 
is  used  in  different  relations.f  There  is  compara- 
tively slight  development  of  the  polysynthetic  struc- 
ture which  is  generally  seen  in  American  languages. 

CHAPANEC    LINGUISTIC    STOCK. 

Chapanecs,  on  Rio  Grande  in  Central  Chiapas. 

Chorotegas,  see  Mangues. 

Dirians,  in  the  mountains  south  of  Lake  Managua. 

Guetares,  in  Costa  Rica. 

Mangues,  on  Lake  Managua,  Nicaragua. 

Orotinans,  on  the  Gulf  of  Nicoya. 

9.   CHONTALS  AND  POPOLOCAS  ;   TEQUISELATECAS 
AND   MATAGALPAS. 

According  to  the  census  of  1880  there  were  31,000 
Indians  in  Mexico  belonging  to  the  Familia  ChontaL\ 

*  Peralta,  Costa  Rica,  Nicaragua  y  Panama,  en  el  Siglo  XVI. 
p.  777.  (Madrid,  1883.) 

fLucien  Adam,  La  Langue  Chiapaneque  (Vienna,  1887);  Fr. 
Miiller,  Grundriss  der  Sprachwissenschaft,  Bd.  IV.,  Abt.  I.  s.  177. 

J  Anales  del  Minislrerio  de  Foinento,  p.  98.    (Mexico,  1881.) 


CONFUSION   OF  TERMS.  147' 

No  such  family  exists.  The  word  chontalli  in  the 
Nahuatl  language  means  simply  "  stranger,"  and 
was  applied  by  the  Nahuas  to  any  people  other  than 
their  own.  According  to  the  Mexican  statistics,  the 
Chontals  are  found  in  the  states  of  Mexico,  Puebla, 
Oaxaca,  Guerrero,  Tobasco,  Guatemala  and  Nica- 
ragua. A  similar  term  \spopoloca,  which  in  Nahuatl 
means  a  coarse  fellow,  one  speaking  badly,  that  is, 
broken  Nahuatl.  The  popolocas  have  also  been 
erected  into  an  ethnic  entity  by  some  ethnographers, 
with  as  little  justice  as  the  Chontallis.  They  are 
stated  to  have  lived  in  the  provinces  of  Puebla, 
Oaxaca,  Vera  Cruz,  Mechoacan,  and  Guatemala. 
Sometimes  the  same  tribe  has  been  called  both 
Chontales  and  Popoloras,  which  would  be  quite  cor- 
rect in  the  Nahuatl  tongue,  since  in  it  these  words 
are  common  nouns  and  nearly  synonymous  in  sig- 
nification ;  but  employed  in  an  ethnographic  sense, 
they  have  led  to  great  confusion,  and  the  blending 
into  one  of  distinct  nationalities.  I  shall  attempt  to 
unravel  this  snarl  as  far  as  the  linguistic  material  at 
my  command  permits. 

The  Chontales  of  Oaxaca  lived  on  the  Pacific  coast 
on  the  Cordillera  in  that  State,  in  the  Sierra  Quiego- 
lani.  They  were  brought  under  instruction  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  sixteenth  century  by  Father  Diego 
Carranza,  who  labored  among  them  for  twelve  years 
with  gratifying  success,  and  wrote  a  Doctrina,  Ser- 
mones  and  Ejercicios  Espirituales  in  their  language.* 
Unfortunately  these  works  are  no  longer  to  be  found, 

*Beristain  y  Souza,  Biblioteca  Hispano-Americana  Septen~ 
trional,  Tomo  I.,  p.  438. 


148  THE  AMERICAN   RACE. 

and  the  only  specimen  of  their  idiom  which  I  have 
obtained  is  a  vocabulary  of  23  words,  collected  by 
John  Porter  Bliss  in  1871.  This  is  too  limited  to 
admit  of  positive  identification  ;  but  it  certainly  shows 
several  coincidences  with  the  Yuma  linguistic  stock.* 
Provisionally,  however,  I  give  it  the  name  of  Tequis- 
tlatecan,  from  the  principal  village  of  the  tribe, 
where  Father  Carranza  built  his  church.  The  Chon- 
tales  of  Guerrero  were  immediately  adjacent  to  those 
of  Oaxaca,  in  the  same  Sierra,  and  there  is  every 
reason  to  believe  that  they  belonged  to  the  same 
family  ;  and  from  their  location,  history  and  associa- 
tions, I  do  not  doubt  that  Orozco  y  Berra  was  right 
in  placing  the  Triquis  in  the  same  family,  f 

The  Chontales  of  Tabasco  occupied  most  of  the 
basin  of  the  Rio  Grijalva.  Herrera  states  that  their 
language  was  that  in  general  use  in  the  province,  be- 
ing richer  in  words  than  the  Zoque,  or  the  provincial 
Mexican  which  has  been  introduced.^:  This  leads  us 


*  For  example  : 

Tequistlatecan. 

Yuma  dialects. 

Man, 

acue, 

eke-tam,  ham-akava. 

Woman, 

canoe, 

anai,  sinyok. 

Sun, 

ord, 

rahj. 

Moon, 

mutla, 

h'la. 

Water, 

laha, 

aha,  kahal. 

Head, 

ahua, 

hu. 

Eyes, 

au, 

yu. 

Mouth, 

aco, 

a,  aha. 

Tree, 

ehe, 

ee-ee. 

Foot, 

\a.mish, 

mie. 

Two, 

ucuc, 

kokx,  goguo. 

f  Geografia  de  las  Lenguas  de  Mejico,  p.  187. 
t  Historia  de  las  Indias  Occidentals,  Dec.  III.,  Lib.  VII.,  cap. 
III. 


THE   CHONTALS   DEFINED.  149 

to  believe  that  it  was  a  Maya  dialect,  a  supposition 
confirmed  by  a  MS.  vocabulary  obtained  by  the  late 
Dr.  C.  H.  Berendt.  By  this  it  is  seen  that  the  Chon- 
tal  of  Tabasco  is  a  member  of  the  numerous  Maya 
family,  and  practically  identical  with  the  Tzendal 
dialect.* 

In  Nicaragua  two  entirely  different  peoples  have 
been  called  Chontales.  The  first  of  these  is  also 
sometimes  mentioned  as  Popolucas.  Their  tongue 
is,  or  a  generation  ago  was,  current  in  and  around 
the  city  of  Matagalpa  and  in  various  hamlets  of  the 
departments  of  Matagalpa,  Segovia  and  Chontales. 
The  only  specimen  I  know  of  it  is  a  vocabulary,  ob- 
tained in  1874  by  the  Rev.  Victor  Noguera,  and  sup- 
plied by  him  to  Dr.  Berendt.  It  contains  a  small  per- 
centage of  words  from  the  neighboring  dialects,  but 
in  the  mass  is  wholly  different,  and  I  consider  it  an 
independent  stock,  to  which  I  give  the  name  Mata- 
gdlpan. 

The  second  Chontales  of  Nicaragua  are  those  men- 
tioned as  Chontal-lencas  by  M.  Desir£  Pector,  and 
are  none  other  than  the  Lencas  described  by  Mr.  E. 
G.  Squier. 

The  Chontal  of  Honduras  is  located  geographically 
in  those  regions  where  the  Chorti  dialect  of  the  Maya 
stock  prevails,  and  there  is  no  reasonable  doubt  but 
that  it  is  Chorti  and  nothing  more. 

The  Chontales  described  by  Mr.  E.  G.  Squier  as 
living  in  the  mountains  north  of  Lake  Nicaragua, 

*  See  also  Dr.  Berendt's  observations  on  this  language  in  Lewis 
H.  Morgan's  Systems  of  Consanguinity  and  Affinity  in  the  Human 
Family,  p.  263.  (Washington,  1871.) 


150  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

about  the  sources  of  the  Blewfields  river,  and  of  whose 
language  he  gives  a  short  vocabulary,*  are  proved  by 
this  to  be  members  of  the  extensive  family  of  the 
Ulvas. 

Of  the  various  tribes  called  Popolocas,  that  living 
at  the  period  of  the  conquest  in  and  near  Puebla  was 
the  most  important.  Their  chief  city  was  Tecamach- 
calco,  and  they  occupied  most  of  the  old  province  of 
Tepeaca.  We  can  form  some  idea  of  their  number 
from  the  statement  that  in  the  year  1540  Father  Fran- 
cisco de  las  Navas  visited  their  country  for  missionary 
purposes,  and  in  less  than  two  months  converted  (!) 
and  baptized  12,000  of  them,  and  this  without  any 
knowledge  of  their  language.f  The  first  who  did 
obtain  a  familiarity  with  it  was  Francisco  de  Toral, 
afterwards  first  bishop  of  Yucatan.  He  described  it 
as  most  difficult,  but  nevertheless  succeeded  in  re- 
ducing it  to  rules  and  wrote  an  Arte  y  Metodo  of  it, 
now  unfortunately  lost.:}:  Its  relationship  has  re- 
mained obscure.  De  Laet  asserted  that  it  was  merely 
a  corrupt  dialect  of  the  Nahuatl ;  §  while  Herrera  was 

*  In  his  Nicaragua^  its  People ',  Scenery  and  Monuments,  Vol.  II., 
PP-  3M,  324-  (New  York,  1856.) 

f  "  Fr.  Francisco  de  las  Naucas  primus  omnium  Indos  qui  Popo- 
locae  nuncupantur  anno  Dom.  1540,  divino  lavacro  tinxit,  quorum 
duobus  mensibus  plus  quam  duodecim  millia  baptizati  sunt." 
Franciscus  Gonzaga,  De  Origine  Seraphicae  Religionis,  p.  1245. 
(Romae,  1587.) 

J  "  Fr.  Francisco  de  Toral,  obispo  que  fud  de  Yucatan,  supo 
primero  de  otro  alguno  la  lengua  popoloca  de  Tecamachcalco,  y  en 
ella  hizo  arte  y  vocabulario,  y  otrasobrasdoctrinales."  Geronimo 
de  Mendieta,  Hisloria  Eclesiastica  Indiana,  Lib.  V.,  cap.  44. 

\  "  Lingua  Mexican^,  paullulum  diversa."  De  Laet,  Novus 
Orbis,  p.  25. 


THE   VARIOUS    POPOLOCAS.  !$! 

informed  by  his  authorities  that  it  was  a  wholly  dif- 
ferent tongue.*  In  this  opinion  he  was  right.  In 
1862  Dr.  Berendt  succeeded  in  obtaining  a  short 
vocabulary  of  it  as  it  is  still  spoken  at  Oluta,  Tesiste- 
pec,  San  Juan  Volador  and  the  neighboring  country. 
A  comparison  shows  that  it  belongs  to  the  Mixe 
family.  The  ancient  province  of  Tepeaca  adjoined 
directly  the  territory  of  the  Mixes,  and  this  identifi- 
cation proves  that  their  tongue  was  more  important 
and  extended  much  more  widely  than  has  hitherto 
been  supposed.  It  was  spoken,  therefore,  by  the 
Tlapanecos,  Coviscas  and  Yopes,  who  were  located 
in  this  region. 

The  Popoloca  of  Oaxaca  is  an  entirely  different 
tongue.  It  is  mentioned  as  identical  with  the  Cho- 
chona,  and  some  have  supposed  this  dialect,  in  which 
we  have  a  Catecismo  by  Father  Roldan,  was  the  same 
as  the  Popoloca  of  Tepeaca.  This  is  an  error.  As  I 
have  said,  the  first  missionary  to  master  and  write 
about  the  latter  was  Father  Toral,  who  wrote  his 
Arte  about  1561  ;  but  more  than  ten  years  before  that, 
to  wit,  in  1550,  Father  Benito  Fernandez  had  printed 
in  the  city  of  Mexico  his  Doctrina  en  Lengua  Mis- 
feca,  and  had  composed  variants  in  the  Tepuzcolola 
and  Chochona  dialects  of  that  tongue.f  The  Cho- 
chona  or  Popoloca,  of  Oaxaca,  belongs  to  the  Zapo- 
tec-Mixtec,  and  not  to  the  Zoque-Mixe  family. 

The  Popolocas  who  lived  in  and  near  Michoacan 
were  also  called  Tecos,  and  Orozco  y  Berra  enumer- 

*  Historiade  laslndias  Occidentals,  Decad.  II.,  L,ib.  X.,  cap.  21. 
f  See  the  note  of  J.  G.  Icazbalceta  to  the  Doctrina  of  Fernandez, 
in  H.  Harrisse's  Biblioteca  Americana  Vetustissima,  p.  445,  sq. 


152  THE  AMERICAN   RACE. 

ates  the  language  they  spoke,  the  Teca,  among  those 
which  are  extinct.*  The  name  Tecos,  however,  was 
merely  an  abbreviated  form  of  Cuitlatecos,  and  was 
applied  to  the  conquered  Nahuatl  population  around 
Michoacan.  In  some  of  the  old  glossaries  teco  is  ex- 
plained by  Mexicano.\  The  language  they  spoke 
belonged  to  the  Nahuatl  branch  of  the  Uto-Aztecan 
stock. 

The  Popolocas  of  Guatemala  were  located  at  the 
close  of  the  eighteenth  century  in  two  curacies  widely 
apart. :{:  One  of  these  was  Yanantique,  partido  of  San 
Miguel,  province  of  San  Salvador,  and  contained  the 
villages  Conchagua  and  Intipuca.  Now  Intipuca  is 
a  Lenca  name,  as  stated  by  Mr.  Squier,  and  we  are 
thus  authorized  to  identify  these  Popolocas  with  the 
Lencas.  The  other  Popolocas  were  at  and  near  Con- 
guaco  in  the  partido  of  Guazacapan,  province  of 
Escuintla,  where  they  lived  immediately  adjacent 
to  the  Xincas.  Dr.  Otto  Stoll  identifies  them  with 
the  Mixes,  but  by  an  error,  as  he  mistook  the  vo- 
cabulary collected  by  Dr.  Berendt  of  the  Popoloca  of 
Oluta,  for  one  of  the  Popoloca  of  Conguaco.§  What 
language  is  spoken  there  I  do  not  know,  as  I  have  not 
been  able  to  find  a  word  in  it  in  any  of  my  author- 
ities. 

*  Geografia  de  las  Lenguas  de  Mejico,  p.  273. 

t  See  an  article  "  Los  Tecos,"  in  the  Anales  del  Museo  Michoa- 
cano,  Ano  II.,  p.  26. 

%  Domingo  Juarros,  Compendia  de  la  Hisioria  de  la  Ciudad  de 
Guatemala,  Toino  I.,  pp.  102,  104,  et  al.  (Ed.  Guatemala,  1857.) 

\  Dr.  Otto  Stoll,  Zu,r  Ethinographie  der  Republik  Guatemala, 
s.  26  (Zurich,  1884). 


LEGENDS   OF  THE   MAYAS.  153 

Dr.  Julius  Scherzer  has  further  added  to  the  con- 
fusion about  the  Popolocas  of  Guatemala  by  printing 
at  Vienna  a  vocabulary  under  this  name  which  he 
had  obtained  near  the  Volcan  de  Agua.*  It  is  noth- 
ing more  than  the  ordinary  Cakchiquel  dialect  of 
that  locality,  known  as  the  lengua  metropolitana  from 
its  official  adoption  by  the  church. 

10.     THE   MAYAS. 

The  geographical  relations  of  the  members  of  the 
Maya  stock  are  in  marked  contrast  to  those  of  the 
Uto-Aztecan — its  only  rival  in  civilization.  Except 
the  colony  of  the  Huastecas  on  the  shores  of  the  gulf 
of  Mexico  in  the  valley  of  the  Rio  Panuco,  all  its 
dialects  were  in  contiguity.  The  true  Maya,  which 
is  believed  to  be  the  purest  form  of  the  language,  ex- 
tended over  the  whole  of  the  peninsula  of  Yucatan, 
around  Lake  Peten,  and  far  up  the  affluents  of  the 
Usumacinta,  the  dialect  of  the  Lacandons  being 
closely  akin  to  it.  The  principal  tribes  in  Guatemala 
were  the  Quiches,  the  Cakchiquels  and  the  Mams  ; 
while  in  Tabasco  the  Tzendals  and  the  Tzotzils  held 
an  extensive  territory.  We  cannot  identify  the  build- 
ers of  the  ruined  cities  of  Palenque  in  Tabasco  and 
Copan  in  Honduras  with  the  ancestors  of  any  known 
tribe,  but  the  archaeological  evidence  is  conclusive 
that  whoever  they  were,  they  belonged  to  this  stock, 
and  spoke  one  of  its  dialects. 

The  historic  legends  of  several  members  of  the 
family  have  been  well  preserved.  According  to  the 

*In  the  Sitzungsbericht  der  Kais,  Akad.  der  Wissenschaften, 
Wien,  1855. 


154  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

earliest  authorities,  those  of  the  Quiches  went  back 
more  than  eight  hundred  years  before  the  conquest,* 
that  is,  to  about  700  A.  D. ;  while  the  chronicles  of 
the  Mayas  seem  to  present  a  meagre  sketch  of  the 
nation  nearly  to  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era.f 
The  uniform  assertion  of  these  legends  is  that  the 
ancestors  of  the  stock  came  from  a  more  northern 
latitude,  following  down  the  shore  of  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico.  This  is  also  supported  by  the  position  of 
the  Huastecas,  who  may  be  regarded  as  one  of  their 
tribes  left  behind  in  the  general  migration,  and  by 
the  tradition  of  the  Nahuas  which  assigned  them  a 
northern  origin.:}:  So  far  no  relationship  has  been 
detected  with  any  northern  stock,  but  the  striking 
similarity  of  some  art  remains  in  the  middle  Missis- 
sippi to  those  of  Yucatan,  suggests  that  one  should 
search  in  this  vicinity  for  their  priscan  honne.§ 

Physically  the  Mayas  are  short,  strong,  dark,  and 
brachycephalic.  The  custom  of  compressing  the 
skull  antero-posteriorly  which  formerly  prevailed, 
exaggerated  this  latter  peculiarity.  When  first  en- 
countered by  the  Spaniards  they  were  split  into  a 
number  of  independent  states  of  which  eighteen  are 

*  "Detnasde  ocho  cientos  anos,"  says  Herrara.  Historia  de 
las  Indias  Occidentals,  Dec.  III.,  Lib.  IV.  Cap.  XVIII. 

f  I  have  edited  some  of  these  with  translations  and  notes,  in  The 
Maya  Chronicles,  Philadelphia,  1882.  (Volume  I.  of  my  Library 
of  Aboriginal  American  Literature}. 

\  Sahagun,  Historia  de  la  Nueva  Espana,  Lib.  X.,  cap.  29,  sec.  12. 

$  One  of  the  most  remarkable  of  these  coincidences  is  that  in  the 
decoration  of  shells  pointed  out  by  Mr.  Wm.  H.  Holmes,  in  his 
article  on  "Art  in  Shells,"  in  the  Second  Annual  Report  of  the 
Bureau  of  Ethnology.  (Washington,  1883.) 


MAYA   ARCHITECTURE.  155 

enumerated  in  Yucatan  alone.  According  to  tra- 
dition, these  were  the  fragments  of  a  powerful  con- 
federacy which  had  broken  up  about  a  century  be- 
fore, the  capital  of  which  was  Mayapan.  The  tribes 
were  divided  into  gentes,  usually  named  after 
animals,  with  descent  in  the  male  line.  A  man  bore 
the  names  of  both  his  father's  and  mother's  gens, 
but  the  former  was  distinguished  as  his  "  true  name." 
The  chieftainship  was  hereditary,  a  council  from  the 
gentes  deliberating  with  the  ruler. 

The  art  in  which  these  people  excelled  was  that  of 
architecture.  They  were  born  builders  from  a  re- 
mote epoch.  At  the  time  of  the  conquest  the  stately 
structures  of  Copan,  Palenque,  T'Ho,  and  many 
other  cities  were  deserted  and  covered  with  an  appar- 
ently primitive  forest  ;  but  others  not  inferior  to  them 
Uxmal,  Chichen  Itza,  Peten,  etc.,  were  the  centers 
of  dense  population,  proving  that  the  builders  of  both 
were  identical.  The  material  was  usually  a  hard 
limestone,  which  was  polished  and  carved,  and  im- 
bedded in  a  firm  mortar.  Such  wa.s  also  the  charac- 
ter of  the  edifices  of  the  Quiches  and  Cakchiquels  of 
Guatemala.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  nqne  of  these 
masons  knew  the  plumb-line  or  the  square,  the  ac- 
curacy of  the  adjustments  is  remarkable.*  Their 
efforts  at  sculpture  were  equally  bold.  They  did  not 
hesitate  to  attempt  statues  in  the  round  of  life-size 
and  larger,  and  the  facades  of  the  edifices  were  cov- 
ered with  extensive  and  intricate  designs  cut  in  high 

*  On  this  point  see  "  The  Lineal  Measures  of  the  Qemi-Civilized 
Nations  of  Mexico  and  Central  America,"  in  piy  £?ss(iys  of  (in 
Americanist,  p.  433.  (Philadelphia,  1890.) 


156  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

relief  upon  the  stones.  All  this  was  accomplished 
without  the  use  of  metal  tools,  as  they  did  not  have 
even  the  bronze  chisels  familiar  to  the  Aztecs.  Gold, 
silver  and  copper  were  confined  to  ornaments,  bells 
and  similar  purposes. 

The  chief  source  of  the  food  supply  was  agricul- 
ture. Maize  was  the  principal  crop,  and  the  arable 
land  was  carefully  let  out  to  families  by  the  heads  of 
the  villages.  Beans  and  peppers  were  also  cultivated 
and  bees  were  domesticated,  from  which  both  honey 
and  wax,  used  in  various  arts,  were  collected.  Cot- 
ton was  woven  into  fabrics  of  such  delicacy  that  the 
Spaniards  at  first  thought  the  stuffs  were  of  silk.  It 
was  dyed  of  many  colors,  and  was  the  main  material 
of  clothing.  Brilliant  feathers  were  highly  prized. 
Their  canoes  were  seaworthy,  and  though  there  was 
no  settlement  of  the  Mayas  on  the  island  of  Cuba  as 
has  been  alleged,  there  was  a  commercial  interchange 
of  products  with  it,  since  Columbus  was  shown  wax 
from  Yucatan  and  was  told  about  the  peninsula.  An 
active  commerce  was  also  maintained  with  southern 
Mexico,  along  the  Gulf  Coast,  the  media  of  exchange 
being  cacao  beans,  shells,  precious  stones  and  flat 
pieces  of  copper.* 

The  points  which  have  attracted  the  most  attention 
in  Maya  civilization,  next  to  its  architecture,  are  the 
calendar  and  the  hieroglyphics.  The  calendar  is 


*  The  principal  authority  is  the  work  of  Diego  de  Landa,  Rela- 
tion de  las  Cosas  de  Yucatan.  It  has  been  twice  published,  once 
imperfectly  by  the  Abb6  Brasseur  de  Bourbourg,  Paris,  1864,  8  vo.  ; 
later  very  accurately  by  the  Spanish  government,  Madrid,  1881, 
folio. 


MAYA   HIEROGLYPHS.  1 57 

evidently  upon  the  same  basis  as  that  of  the  Mexi- 
cans, turning  upon  the  numerals  thirteen,  twenty, 
and  four.  But  the  Mayas  appear  to  have  had  more 
extended  measures  for  the  computation  of  time  than 
the  Aztecs.  Besides  the  cycle  of  twenty  years,  called 
by  them  the  katun,  and  that  of  fifty-two  years,  they 
had  the  ahau  katun,  or  Great  Cycle,  of  two  hundred 
and  sixty  years. 

Both  the  Cakchiquels,  Quiches  and  Mayas  of 
Yucatan  were  literary  peoples.  They  made  frequent 
use  of  tablets,  wrote  many  books,  and  covered  the 
walls  of  their  buildings  with  hieroglyphs  carved  on 
the  stone  or  wood,  or  painted  upon  the  plaster. 
Their  characters  are  entirely  different  from  those  of 
the  Mexicans.  Most  of  them  have  rounded  outlines, 
something  like  that  of  a  section  of  a  pebble,  and  for 
this  reason  the  name  "  calculiform  "  has  been  applied 
to  the  writing.  Their  books  were  of  maguey  paper 
or  of  parchment,  folded  like  those  of  the  Mexicans. 
Although  five  or  six  of  them  have  been  preserved,  as 
well  as  numerous  inscriptions  on  the  walls  of  build- 
ings, no  satisfactory  interpretations  have  been  offered, 
largely,  perhaps,  because  none  of  the  interpreters 
have  made  themselves  familiar  with  the  Maya  lan- 
guage.* 

Imperfect  description  of  the  myths  and  rites  of 
the  Yucatecan  Mayas  are  preserved  in  the  old  Spanish 

*  The  most  profitable  studies  in  the  Maya  hieroglyphs  have  been 
by  Dr.  Cyrus  Thomas  in  the  United  States,  Dr.  E.  Forstemann,  Ed. 
Seler  and  Schellhas  in  Germany,  and  Prof.  L.  de  Rosny  in  France. 
On  the  MSS.  or  codices  preserved,  see  "  The  Writings  and  Records 
of  the  Ancient  Mayas  "  in  my  Essays  of  an  Americanist,  pp.  230- 
254- 


158  THE  AMERICAN   RACE. 

authors  ;  while  of  the  Quiches  we  have  in  the  original 
their  sacred  book,  the  Popol  Vuh  with  a  fair  transla- 
tion by  the  Abb6  Brasseur  de  Bourbourg.*  This 
may  well  be  considered  one  of  the  most  valuable 
monuments  of  ancient  American  literature,  and  its 
substantial  authenticity  cannot  be  doubted.  Its  first 
part  presents  a  body  of  ancient  mythology  and  its 
second  the  early  history  of  the  tribe.  The  latter  is 
supplemented  by  a  similar  document  relating  to  the 
history  of  their  neighbors  the  Cakchiquels,  written 
at  the  time  of  the  conquest,  which  I  have  published 
from  the  unique  MS.  in  my  possession. f  Many 
facts  relating  to  their  ancient  mythology,  history  and 
superstitions  were  written  down  by  educated  natives 
of  Yucatan  in  a  series  of  documents  entitled  "  the 
Books  of  Chilan  Balam,"  copies  of  a  number  of 
which  have  been  preserved.  \  They  are  replete  with 
curious  material. 

MAYA  LINGUISTIC  STOCK. 

Achis,  in  eastern  Guatemala,  now  extinct. 
Aguatecas,  in  Aguacatan,  Guatemala. 
Cakchiquels,  in  central  Guatemala. 
Chaneabals,  in  eastern  Chiapas. 
Chinantecos  or  Cinantecos,  same  as  Tzotzils. 
Choles,  in  Depart.  Palenque,  in  Chiapas. 
Chortis,  in  valley  of  Rio  Montagua,  near  Copan. 
Huastecas,  on  Rio  Panuco,  north  of  Vera  Cruz. 

*  Popul  Vuh,  Le  Livre  Sucre.     Paris,  1861. 

t  The  Annals  of  the  Cakchiquels,  the  original  text  with  a  Trans- 
lation, Notes  and  Introduction.  Phila.,  1885.  (Volume  VI.  of  my 
Library  of  Aboriginal  American  Literature.) 

t  See  "The  Books  of  Chilan  Balarn, "  in  -my  Essays  of  an  Ameri- 
canist, pp.  255-273. 


INTER-TSTHMTAN  STOCKS. 

Ixils,  on  head-waters  of  Rio-Salinas,  in  Guatemala. 

Lacandons,  on  the  Rio  L,acandon. 

Mams,  in  western  Guatemala. 

Mayas,  in  peninsula  of  Yucatan. 

Mopans,  north  of  the  Chols,  in  Guatemala. 

Quekchis,  on  Rio  Cahabon,  in  Guatemala. 

Quiches  ( Utlateca),  head-waters  of  Rio  Grande,  Guatemala. 

Pokomams,  south  of  Rio  Grande,  in  Guatemala. 

Pokonchis,  in  central  Guatemala. 

Tzendals,  in  Tabasco  and  Chiapas. 

Tzotzils,  in  Chiapas. 

Tzutuhils,  south  of  lake  Atitlan,  Guatemala. 

Uspantecas,  on  Rio  Negro,  Guatemala. 

II.   THE   HUAVES,   SUBTIABAS,   LENCAS,   XINCAS,   XICA- 

QUES,  "  CARIES,"  MUSQUITOS,  ULVAS,  RAMAS, 

PAYAS,   GUATUSOS. 

The  small  tribe  of  the  Huaves  occupies  four  ham- 
lets on  the  isthmus  of  Tehuantepec  on  the  Pacific 
Ocean.*  The  men  are  tall  and  strong  but  the  women 
are  unusually  ugly.  Their  occupation  is  chiefly  fish- 
ing and  they  have  the  reputation  of  being  dull.  The 
language  they  speak  is  said  to  be  of  an  independent 
stock,  and  according  to  various  writers  the  tribe 
claims  to  have  come  from  some  part  of  the  coast  a 
considerable  distance  to  the  south.  The  vocabularies 
of  their  tongue  are  too  imperfect  to  permit  its  identi- 
fication. 

The  Subtiabas  are  inhabitants  of  the  valley  of  that 
name  near  the  modern  city  of  Leon  in  Nicaragua. 
They  were  called  Nagrandans  by  Mr.  E.  G.  Squier,f 

*  The  name  Huaves  is  derived  from  the  Zapotec  huavi,  to  be- 
come rotten  through  dampness.  ( Vocabulario  Zapoteco,  MS.  in 
my  possession.)  It  was  probably  a  term  of  contempt. 

f  Nicaragua,  its  People  and  Scenery,  Vol.  II.,  p.  310. 


160  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

because  the  site  of  of  ancient  Leon  was  on  the  plain  of 
Nagrando  and  the  province  also  bore  this  name  at  the 
time  of  the  conquest.  They  are  probably  the  de- 
scendants of  the  ancient  Maribois,  whom  both  Oviedo 
and  Palacios  place  a  few  leagues  from  Leon  and  to 
whom  they  ascribe  an  independent  language  ;  but  it  is 
an  error  of  some  later  writers  to  confound  them  with 
the  Chorotegans  or  Mangues,  to  whom  they  had  no 
relationship  whatever.  Their  language  stands  by 
itself  among  the  inter-isthmian  stocks. 

The  Lenca  is  spoken  by  several  semi-civilized  tribes 
in  central  Honduras.  Its  principal  dialects  are  the  In- 
tibucat,  Guajiquero,  Opatoro  and  Similaton.  It  is  an 
independent  stock,  with  no  affinities  as  yet  discovered. 
The  Guajiqueros  dwell  in  remote  villages  in  the  San 
Juan  Mountains  southwest  of  Comayagua,  the  capital 
of  Honduras.  We  owe  to  the  late  Mr.  E.  G.  Squier 
vocabularies  of  all  four  dialects  and  an  interesting 
description  of  the  present  condition  of  the  stock.* 

A  little  known  tribe  in  a  low  stage  of  culture  dwelt 
on  the  Rio  de  los  Esclavos,  the  Xincas.  They  ex- 
tended about  fifty  miles  along  the  Pacific  coast  and 
thence  back  to  the  Sierra  which  is  there  about  the 
same  distance.  The  one  vocabulary  we  have  on  their 
tongue  shows  some  loan  words  from  their  Nahuatl 
neighbors  the  Pipiles,  but  in  other  respects  it  appears 
to  be  a  stock  by  itself.  Its  radicals  are  generally 
monosyllabic,  and  the  formation  of  words  is  by  suf- 


*  E.  G.  Squier,  "  A  Visit  to  the  Guajiquero  Indians,"  in  Harper's 
Magazine,  October,  1859.  A  copy  of  his  vocabularies  is  in  my 
possession. 


TRIBES   OF   HONDURAS.  l6l 

fixes.*  The  tribe  was  conquered  by  Alvarado,  in 
1524,  who  states  that  their  principal  village  was  at 
Guazacapam.  It  was  built  of  wood  and  populous. 
There  are  some  reasons  for  believing  that  previous  to 
the  arrival  of  the  Quiches  and  Cakchiquels  on  the 
plains  of  Guatemala  that  region  was  occupied  by  this 
nation,  and  that  they  gave  way  before  the  superior 
fighting  powers  of  the  more  cultured  stock. 

The  Xicaques  live  in  the  state  of  Honduras  to  the 
number  of  about  six  thousand.  Their  seats  are  on 
the  waters  of  the  Rio  Sulaque  and  Rio  Chaloma. 
They  acknowledge  one  ruler,  who  is  elective  and 
holds  the  office  for  life.  Their  language  contains  a 
few  Nahuatl  words,  but  in  the  body  of  its  vocabulary 
reveals  no  relationship  to  any  other  stock. 

The  word  Carib  is  frequently  applied  by  the  Span- 
ish population  to  any  wild  tribe,  merely  in  the  sense 
of  savage  or  wild.  Thus  on  the  upper  Usumacinta 
the  Lacandones,  a  people  of  pure  Maya  stock,  are  so 
called  by  the  whites  ;  on  the  Musquito  coast  the  un- 
civilized Ulvas  of  the  mountains  are  referred  to  as 
Caribs.  There  are  a  large  number  of  pure  and  mixed 
Caribs,  probably  five  or  six  thousand,  in  British  Hon- 
duras near  Trujillo,  but  they  do  not  belong  to  the 
original  population.  They  were  brought  there  from 
the  island  of  St.  Vincent  in  1796  by  the  British  au- 
thorities. Many  of  them  have  the  marked  traits  of 
the  negro  through  a  mingling  of  the  races,  and  are 

*  I  collected  and  published  some  years  ago  the  only  linguistic 
material  known  regarding  this  tribe.     <l  On  the  Language  and 
Ethnologic  Position  of  the  Xinca  Indians  of  Guatemala,"  in  Pro- 
ceedings of  the  American  Philosophical  Society,  1884. 
ii 


l62  THE  AMERICAN  RACK. 

sometimes  called  "  Black  Caribs."  The  Rev.  Alex- 
ander Henderson,  who  has  composed  a  grammar  and 
dictionary  of  their  dialect,  gives  them  the  name 
Karifs,  a  corruption  of  Carib,  and  is  the  term  by 
which  they  call  themselves. 

That  portion  of  Honduras  known  as  the  Musquito 
coast  derived  its  name,  not  from  the  abundance  of 
those  troublesome  insects,  but  from  a  native  tribe  who 
at  the  discovery  occupied  the  shore  near  Blewfield 
Lagoon.  They  are  an  intelligent  people,  short  in 
stature,  unusually  dark  in  color,  with  finely  cut  feat- 
ures, and  small  straight  noses — not  at  all  negroid,  ex- 
cept where  there  has  been  an  admixture  of  blood. 
They  number  about  six  thousand,  many  of  whom 
have  been  partly  civilized  by  the  efforts  of  mission- 
aries, who  have  reduced  the  language  to  writing  and 
published  in  it  a  number  of  works.  The  Tunglas  are 
one  of  the  sub-tribes  of  the  Musquitos. 

On  the  head-waters  of  the  streams  which  empty 
along  the  Musquito  coast  reside  the  numerous  tribes 
of  the  Ulvas,  called  by  the  English  Smoos.  These 
are  dark,  but  lighter  in  color  than  the  Musquitos,  and 
are  much  ruder  and  more  savage.  The  custom  of 
flattening  the  head  prevails  among  them,  and  as  their 
features  are  not  handsome  at  the  best,  and  as  they  are 
much  afflicted  with  leprous  diseases,  they  are  by  no 
means  an  attractive  people. 

THE  ULVA  LINGUISTIC  STOCK. 
Bulbuls,  see  Poyas. 

Carchas  or  Cukras,  on  Rio  Meco  above  Matlack  Falls. ' 
Cocos,  on  Rio  Coco. 
Micos,  on  Rio  Mico. 


INTER-ISTHMIAN  TRIBES.  163 

Parrastahs,  on  Rio  Mico. 

Pantasmas,  on  upper  basin  of  Rio  Coco. 

Melchoras,  on  Rio  de  los  Ramas. 

Siguias,  on  upper  Rio  Mico. 

Smoos,  see  Woolwas. 

Subironas,  on  Rio  Coco. 

Tzvakas,  at  San  Bias  and  on  Rio  Twaka. 

Woolwas,  Ulvasy  Smoos,  on  head-waters  of  Blewfield  river. 

The  Ramas,  described  as  men  of  herculean  stature 
and  strength,  with  a  language  of  their  own,  reside  on 
a  small  island  in  Blewfield  Lagoon. 

Toward  the  mountains  near  the  head-waters  of 
Black  River,  are  the  Payas,  also  alleged  to  be  a  sepa- 
rate stock.  But  unfortunately  we  have  no  specimens 
of  these  tongues.* 

The  upper  waters  of  the  Rio  Frio  and  its  affluents 
form  the  locality  of  the  Guatusos  or  Huatusos.  By 
some  older  writers  these  were  supposed  to  be  of 
Nahuatl  affinities,  and  others  said  that  they  were 
"  white  Indians."  Neither  of  these  tales  has  any 
foundation.  I  have  seen  some  of  the  Guatusos,  and 
their  color  is  about  that  of  the  average  northern  In- 
dians ;  and  as  for  their  language,  of  which  we  have 
rather  full  vocabularies,  it  is  not  in  the  slightest  re- 
lated to  the  Nahuatl,  but  is  an  independent  stock. 
They  are  a  robust  and  agile  set,  preferring  a  wild  life, 
but  cultivating  maize,  bananas,  tobacco  and  other 
vegetables,  and  knitting  nets  and  hammocks  from 

*  On  the  ethnography  of  the  Musquito  coast  consult  John  Col- 
linson,  in  Mems.  of  the  Anthrop.  Soc.  of  London,  Vol.  III.,  p.  149, 
sq.  ;  C.  N.  Bell,  in  Jour,  of  the  Royal  Geograph.  Soc.,  Vol.  XXXII., 
p.  257,  and  the  Bericht  of  the  German  Commission,  Berlin,  1845. 
Lucien  Adam  has  recently  prepared  a  careful  study  of  the  Mus- 
quito language. 


164  THE  AMERICAN   RACE. 

the  fibres  of  the  agave.  The  huleros,  or  gatherers 
of  india  rubber,  persecute  them  cruelly,  and  are  cor- 
respondingly  hated.  It  is  doubtful  if  at  present  they 
number  over  six  hundred.* 

The  mountain  chain  which  separates  Nicaragua 
from  Costa  Rica,  and  the  head-waters  of  the  Rio  Frio 
from  those  of  the  more  southern  and  eastern  streams, 
is  the  ethnographic  boundary  of  North  America.  Be- 
yond it  we  come  upon  tribes  whose  linguistic  affini- 
ties point  towards  the  southern  continent.  Such  are 
the  Talamancas,  Guaymies,  Valientes  and  others, 
which  I  must  include,  in  view  of  recent  researches 
into  their  languages,  in  the  next  section. 


*  See  Iveon  Fernandez  and  J.  F.  Bransford,  in  Rep.  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution^  1882,  p.  675  ;  B.  A.  Thiel,  Apuntes  Lexicografi- 
cos,  Parte  III.  ;  O.  J.  Parker,  in  Beach's  Indian  Miscellany,  p.  346. 


GENERAL  REMARKS. 

linguistic  classification  of  the  South  American 
tribes  offers  far  greater  difficulties  than  that  of 
North  America.  Not  only  has  it  been  studied  less 
diligently,  but  the  geographical  character  of  the  in- 
terior, the  facilities  with  which  tribes  move  along  its 
extensive  water-ways,  and  the  less  stable  temperament 
of  the  white  population  have  combined  to  obscure 
the  relationship  of  the  native  tribes  and  to  limit  our 
knowledge  about  them. 

The  first  serious  attempt  to  take  a  comprehensive 
survey  of  the  idioms  of  this  portion  of  the  continent 
was  that  of  the  Abb£  Hervas  in  his  general  work  on 
the  languages  of  the  globe.*  Balbi  and  Adelung  did 
scarcely  more  than  pursue  the  lines  he  had  traced  in 
this  portion  of  the  field.  So  little  had  these  obtained 
definite  results  that  Alexander  von  Humboldt  re- 
nounced as  impracticable  the  arrangement  of  South 
American  tribes  by  their  languages,  because  "  more 
than  seven-eighths  would  have  remained  what  the 
classifying  botanists  call  incertce  sedis"\ 

*  Catalogo  de  las  Lenguas  conocidas.  Madrid,  1805.  This  is  the 
enlarged  Spanish  edition  of  the  Italian  original  published  in  1784, 
and  it  is  the  edition  I  have  unifonnily  referred  to  in  this  work. 

f  Personal  Narrative,  Vol.  VI.,  p.  352  (English  trans.,  London, 
1826). 


l66  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

This  eminent  naturalist,  however,  overlooked  no 
opportunity  to  collect  material  for  the  study  of  the 
native  tongues,  and  on  his  return  to  Europe  placed 
what  he  had  secured  in  the  hands  of  his  distinguished 
brother  for  analysis.  William  von  Humboldt,  who 
was  the  profoundest  linguist  of  his  day,  gave  close 
attention  to  the  subject,  but  rather  from  a  purely 
critical  than  an  ethnographic  aspect.  He  based  upon 
the  South  American  languages  many  principles  of 
his  linguistic  philosophy ;  but  so  little  general  atten- 
tion was  given  the  subject  that  his  most  valuable 
study  was  first  given  to  the  press  by  myself  in  1885.* 

Sixty  years  ago  the  French  traveler,  Alcide  D'Or- 
bigny,  published  his  important  work  devoted  to 
South  American  Ethnography,  but  confined  to  that 
portion  of  the  continent  he  had  visited,  south  of  the 
parallel  of  12°  south  latitude.f  His  classification  was 
based  partly  on  language,  partly  on  physical  traits, 
and  as  it  seemed  simple  and  clear,  it  has  retained  its 
popularity  quite  to  the  present  day.  He  subsumes 
all  the  tribes  in  the  area  referred  to  under  three 
"  races,"  subdivided  into  "branches"  and  "nations" 
as  follows : — 

*  The  Philosophic  Grammar  of  American  Languages,  as  set 
forth  by  Wilhelm  von  Humboldt ;  with  the  Translation  of  an  Un- 
published Memoir  by  him  on  the  American  Verb.  By  Daniel  G. 
Brinton.  (8vo.  Philadelphia,  1885.)  This  Memoir  was  not  in- 
cluded in  the  editions  of  Wilhelm  von  Humboldt's  Works,  and 
was  unknown  even  to  their  latest  editor,  Professor  Steinthal.  The 
original  is  in  the  Berlin  Public  Library. 

\L'Homme  Americain  de  fAmerique  Meridionale,  consider^ 
sous  ses  Rapports  Physiologiques  et  Moraux.  Par  Alcide  D'Or- 
bigny.  2  vols.  Paris,  1839. 


D'ORBIGNY'S  CLASSIFICATION. 


I67 


I.  Ando-Peruvian                 2.  Pampean           3.  Brasilio-Guar- 

Race.                                    Race.                      anian  Race. 

BRANCH. 

NATIONS.       BRANCH.         NATIONS.         NATIONS. 

!  Quichuas.                            ^Tehuelches.     /  Guaranis. 

i.  PERU- 

Aytnaras. 

Puelches.          I  Botocudos. 

VIAN. 

Chancos.      r    pAM. 

Charruas. 

Atacamas.        PEAN 

Mbocobis. 

r  Yuracares. 

Mataguayos. 

2.   AN- 

Mocetenes. 

Abipones. 

DEAN. 
(Antis- 

Tacanas. 
Maropas.   ' 

Lenguas. 
Samucus. 

ian.) 

Apolistas. 

Chiquitos. 

3.  ARAU- 

'  Aucas. 

Saravecas.  i- 

CANIAN. 

w  Fuegians.                           f 

Otuques. 

Curuminacas. 

2.  CHIQUI- 

Covarecas. 

XSAN. 

Curaves. 

Tapiis. 

Curucanecas. 

Paiconecas.    - 

Corabecas. 

C  Moxos. 

. 

Chapacuras. 

Itonamas. 

3.  Mosr- 

Canichanas. 

BAN. 

Mobimas. 

Cayuvavas. 

Pacaguaras. 

Itenes. 

In  this  classification,  the  distinctions  of  "  races " 
and  "  branches "  are  based  exclusively  on  physical 
characteristics,  and  are  at  times  in  conflict  with  a 
linguistic  arrangement.  The  Botocudos  and  Guar- 
anis, for  instance,  are  wholly  dissimilar  and  should 
no  more  be  classed  together  than  the  Peruvians  and 
the  Tupis  ;  the  Saravecas  and  Paiconecas  speak  Ara- 


1 68  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

wak  dialects ;  and  other  examples  could  be  cited. 
When  D'Orbigny  confined  himself  to  the  identifica- 
tion of  related  tribes  by  a  close  scrutiny  of  their 
idioms,  he  rendered  valuable  service  by  introducing 
order  into  the  chaotic  nomenclature  of  earlier  writers, 
as  he  forcibly  points  out ;  but  his  physical  discrimi- 
nations are  of  little  value. 

About  the  middle  of  this  century,  two  German 
travelers,  Von  Tschudi  and  Von  Martius,  gave  close 
attention  to  the  linguistic  ethnology  of  the  continent, 
Von  Tschudi  in  Peru  and  Von  Martius  in  Brazil. 
The  former  found  the  field  so  unoccupied  that  he  did 
not  hesitate  to  write  in  a  work  published  less  than  ten 
years  ago,  "  In  fact,  the  knowledge  of  the  languages 
of  South  America  is  to-day  less  than  it  was  two  hun- 
dred years  ago."*  His  own  divisions  of  the  linguis- 
tic regions  (Sfirachgebicte)  of  the  continent  is  less 
satisfactory  than  we  might  expect.  He  describes 
three  principal  and  seven  minor  districts,  the  former 
being,  I.  The  Pampo-Andean  ;  2.  The  inter-Andean  ; 
and  3.  The  Tupi-Guarani  regions.  The  minor  cen- 
ters are,  I.  The  Arawak-Carib  region ;  2.  That  of 
Cundinamarca;  3.  The  Rio  Meta;  4.  The  Rio  Tolima  ; 
5.  The  Rio  Atrato ;  6.  The  Rio  Salado  ;  7.  The 
Chaco  ;  8.  That  of  the  Moxos. 

These  are  so  far  from  meeting  the  requirements  of 
our  linguistic  possessions  at  present  that  scarcely  one 
of  them  can  be  accepted.  Von  Tschudi  was  an  able 
and  critical  scholar  in  his  particular  field,  that  of  the 
Kechua  tongue,  but  he  had  not  made  a  wide  study  of 
South  American  languages. 

*  Organismus  dcr  Khelschua  Sprache.     Einleitung.     (Leipzig, 
1884. ) 


PROPOSED  CLASSIFICATION.  169 

Von  Martius  was  much  more  of  a  comparative  lin- 
guist. His  work  on  the  ethnography  and  linguistics 
of  South  America  *  is  a  mine  of  general  information, 
and  indispensable  to  every  student  of  the  subject. 
Taking  the  numerous  and  confused  dialects  of  Brazil, 
and  the  almost  hopeless  synonymy  of  its  tribal  names, 
he  undertook  a  classification  of  them  by  establishing 
verbal  and  grammatical  similarities.  It  is  now  gen- 
erally recognized  that  he  went  too  far  in  this  direction. 
He  maintained,  for  instance,  that  there  is  a  demon- 
strable relationship  between  the  Tupi,  the  Carib,  and  the 
Arawak  stocks ;  later  studies  have  not  endorsed  this, 
but  have  tended  to  show  that  they  cannot  be  traced  to 
any  common  mother-speech.  What  Martius  called  the 
"  Guck  "  nations,  which  he  brought  into  connection 
through  the  word  of  that  sound  used  by  them  to 
designate  the  maternal  uncle,  are  now  considered  to  be 
without  general  relationship.  The  researches  of  Karl 
Von  Den  Steinen  and  Lucien  Adam  have  overthrown 
this  theory. 

It  is  especially  in  studying  the  vast  and  largely  un- 
explored regions  watered  by  the  upper  streams  of  the 
mighty  Amazon,  that  one  is  yet  at  a  loss  to  bring  the 
native  inhabitants  into  ethnic  order.  Of  the  various 
explorers  and  travellers  who  have  visited  that  terri- 
tory, few  have  paid  attention  to  the  dialects  of  the 
natives,  and  of  those  few,  several  have  left  their  col- 
lections unpublished.  Thus,  I  have  been  unable  to 
learn  that  Richard  Spruce,  who  obtained  numerous 

*  Beitrage  zur  Ethnographic  und  Sprachenkunde  Amerikas, 
zumal  Brasiliens.  Von  Dr.  Carl  Friedrich  Phil,  von  Martius. 
Leipzig,  1867.  2  vols. 


170  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

vocabularies  along  the  Amazon  and  its  branches,  gave 
them  to  the  press ;  and  there  were  in  the  hands  of 
Von  Tschudi  more  than  a  hundred  vocabularies  col- 
lected by  the  German  naturalist,  Johannes  Natterer, 
in  the  interior  of  Brazil,*  most  of  which  I  learn  are 
still  in  manuscript.  In  default  of  material  such  as  this, 
the  classification  of  the  tribes  of  Brazil  must  remain 
imperfect. 

It  is  also  a  matter  of  much  regret  that  no  copy  can 
be  found  of  the  work  of  the  celebrated  missionary, 
Alonso  de  Barcena,  Lexica  et  Precepta  in  quinque  In- 
dorum  Linguis,  published  at  Lima,  in  1 590 — if,  indeed, 
it  was  ever  really  printed.  It  contained  grammars  of 
the  Kechua,  Aymara,  Yunca,  Puquina  and  Katamarefia, 
(spoken  by  the  Calchaquis).  Of  the  two  last  mentioned 
idioms  no  other  grammar  is  known,  which  makes  the 
complete  disappearance  of  this  early  printed  book 
particularly  unfortunate.  Another  Jesuit,  Father 
Guillaume  D'fitre,  wrote  out  the  catechism  and  in- 
structions for  the  sacraments  in  eighteen  languages  of 
eastern  Peru  and  the  upper  Orinoco ;  f  but  this,  too, 
seems  lost. 

Of  late  years  no  one  has  paid  such  fruitful  attention 
to  the  relationship  and  classification  of  the  South 
American  tribes  and  languages  as  M.  Lucien  Adam. 
Although  I  have  not  in  all  points  followed  his  no- 
menclature, and  have  not  throughout  felt  in  accordance 
with  his  grouping,  I  have  always  placed  my  main 

*  Von  Tschudi,  Organismus  der  Kechua  Sprache,  s.  15,  note. 

f  He  was  superior  general  of  the  missions  on  the  Maranon  and 
its  branches  about  1730.  See  Lcltres  Ediftantes  et  Curieuses,  Tom. 
II.,  p.  in,  for  his  own  description  of  his  experiences  and  studies. 


SOUTH   AMERICAN   GROUPS.  I/I 

dependence  on  his  work  in  the  special  fields  he  has 
selected — the  three  great  South  American  families  of 
the  Amazon  region,  the  Arawak  (called  by  him  the 
Maypure),  the  Carib,  and  the  Tupi.* 

The  general  plan  which  I  shall  adopt  is  rather  for 
convenience  of  arranging  the  subject  than  for  reasons 
based  on  similarities  either  of  language  or  physical 
habitus.  It  is  that  which  allows  the  presentation  of 
the  various  stocks  most  in  accordance  with  their  geo- 
graphic distribution  and  their  .historic  associations. 

It  is  as  follows  : 

I.  The  South  Pacific  group. 

1.  The  Columbian  region. 

2.  The  Peruvian  region. 

II.  The  South  Atlantic  group. 

1.  The  Amazonian  region. 

2.  The  Pampean  region. 

*  See  especially  his  paper  "  Trois  families  linguistiques  des  bas- 
sins  de  1'Amazone  et  de  1'Ore'noque."  in  the  Compte-Rendu  du 
Congres  Internationale  des  Americanistes,  1888,  p. 


THE  SOOTH  PACIFIC 


I.   THE  COLUMBIAN  REGION. 

THIS  region  includes  the  mountainous  district  in 
northwestern  South  America,  west  of  the  basin 
of  the  Orinoco  and  north  of  the  equator — but  without 
rigid  adherence  to  these  lines.  The  character  of  its 
culture  differed  considerably  from  that  found  in  the 
Atlantic  regions  and  was  much  more  closely  assimil- 
ated to  that  of  Peru.  Three  lofty  mountain  chains 
traverse  New  Granada  from  north  to  south,  the  inter- 
vening valleys  being  beds  of  powerful  rivers,  rich  in 
fish  and  with  fertile  banks.  This  configuration  of  the 
soil  has  exerted  a  profound  influence  on  the  life  and 
migrations  of  the  native  inhabitants,  severing  them 
from  the  fellow-members  of  their  race  to  the  east  and 
directing  their  rovings  in  a  north  and  south  direc- 
tion. 

The  productive  valleys  were  no  doubt  densely  pop- 
ulated ;  though  we  must  regard  as  a  wild  extravagance 
the  estimate  of  a  modern  writer  that  at  the  conquest 
the  native  inhabitants  of  New  Granada  reached  "  six 
to  eight  millions"*;  and  I  hope  that  the  historian 
Herrera  was  far  beyond  the  truth  when  he  asserted 

*  Joaquin  Acosta,  Compendia  Plistorico  de  la  Nueva  Granada^ 
p.  1 68.  (Paris,  1848.) 

(172) 


ISTHMIAN   NATIONS.  1/3 

that  in  Popayan  alone,  in^a  single  year  fifty  thousand 
of  the  Indians  died  of  starvation,  five  thousand  were 
killed  and  eaten  by  the  famishing  multitude,  and  a 
hundred  thousand  perished  from  pestilence  !  * 

I.   Tribes  of  the  Isthmus  and  Adjacent  Coast. 

At  the  discovery,  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  was  in  the 
possession  of  the  Cunas  tribe,  as  they  call -themselves. 
They  are  the  same  to  whom  were  applied  later  the 
names  Darien  Indians  (Wafer),  Tules,  Cunacunas, 
Cuevas,  Coybas,  Mandingas,  Bayanos,  Irriacos,  San 
Bias  Indians,  Chucunacos,  Tucutis,  etc. 

They  extended  from  the  Gulf  of  Uraba  and  the  river 
Atrato  on  the  east  to  the  river  Chagres  on  the  west. 
In  that  direction  they  were  contiguous  to  the  Guay- 
mis,  while  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Atrato  their  neigh- 
bors were  the  Chocos. 

The  Cunas  are  slightly  undersized  (about  1.50),  but 
symmetrical  and  vigorous.  Their  color  is  light,  and 
individuals  with  chestnut  or  reddish  hair  and  grey 
eyes  have  always  been  noted  among  them,  and  have 
erroneously  been  supposed  to  be  albinos.  Their 
skulls  are  markedly  brachycephalic  (88)  and  their  faces 
broad. 

.  In  spite  of  the  severe  measures  of  the  Spaniards, 
they  have  never  been  thoroughly  reduced,  and  still 
manifest  an  unconquerable  love  of  freedom  and  a 
wild  life.  When  first  met  they  lived  in  small  villages 
composed  of  communal  houses,  raised  maize  and  cot- 
ton, working  the  latter  into  garments  for  the  women, 
and  possessed  some  gold,  which  they  obtained  from 

*Hist.  de  laslndias  Occidentals,  Dec.  VII.,  Cap.  XVI. 


174  THE  AMERICAN   RACE. 

the  mountain  streams  and  by  working  auriferous 
veins.  The  men  usually  appeared  naked  and  used 
poisoned  arrows. 

The  Cuna  language  does  not  seem  to  be  positively 
connected  with  any  other  stock,  nor  have  dialects  of  it 
been  discovered  elsewhere.  A  number  of  verbal  sim- 
ilarities have  been  pointed  out  with  the  Chibcha,  and 
it  has  also  a  certain  similarity  to  the  Carib  ;  *  but  with 
our  present  knowledge  it  would  be  hasty  to  class  it 
along  with  any  other. 

The  Changuina  or  Dorasque  tribes  of  the  Isthmus 
lived  latterly  on  the  River  Puan,  a  branch  of  the 
Telorio,  and  are  said  to  have  numbered  5000  persons, 
though  but  a  few  miserable  remnants  are  surviving. 
They  are  lighter  in  color  than  the  Guaymis,  with 
whom  they  were  in  a  constant  state  of  quarreling. 
In  earlier  times  they  were  bold  warriors,  lived  by 
hunting,  and  were  less  cultured  than  their  neighbors  ; 
yet  a  remarkable  megalithic  monument  in  the  pueblo 
of  Meza  is  attributed  to  them.f  At  the  period  of  the 
conquest  they  dwelt  in  the  high  Sierras  back  of  the 
volcano  of  Chiriqui  and  extended  to  the  northern 
coast  near  Chiriqui  Lagoon,  where  the  River  Chan- 

*  Dr.  Max  Uhle  gives  a  list  of  26  Cuna  words,  with  analogies  in 
the  Chibcha  and  its  dialects.  ( Compte-Rendu  du  Cong.  Internal. 
Americanistes,  1888,  p.  485.)  Alphonse  Pinart,  who  has  published 
the  best  material  on  Cuna,  is  inclined  to  regard  it  as  affiliated  to 
the  Carib.  (Vocabulario  Caste llano-Cuna.  Panama,  1882,  and 
Paris,  1890.) 

fA.  L.  Pinart,  Coleccion  de  Linguistica  y  Etnografia  Ameri- 
cana, Tom.  IV.,  p.  17 ;  also  the  same  writer  in  Revu  d"  Eihno- 
graphie,  1887,  p.  117,  and  Vocabulario  Castellano-Dorasqut.  Paris, 
1890. 


ISTHMIAN   NATIONS.  175 

guina-Aula  (aula,  in  the  Mosquito  language,  means 
river),  still  preserves  their  name.  They  were  an  inde- 
pendent warlike  tribe,  and  gave  the  Spaniards  much 
trouble.  Finally,  these  broils  led  to  their  practical 
extinction.  The  last  member  of  the  Dorasque  branch 
died  in  1882,  and  few  others  remain. 

CHANGUINA  LINGUISTIC   STOCK. 

Chalivas,  on  upper  Changuina-Aula. 

Changuinas,  near  Bugaba. 

Chumulus,  near  Caldera. 

Dorasque s,  on  the  Rio  Puan. 

Gualacas,  near  San  Francisco  de  Dolega. 

Teluskies,  near  Rio  Puan. 

The  CJwcos  were  the  first  nation  encountered  in 
South  America  on  passing  beyond  the  territory  of  the 
Cunas.  They  occupied  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Gulf 
of  Uraba,  and  much  of  the  lower  valley  of  the  Atrato. 
Thence  they  extended  westerly  across  the  Sierra  to 
the  Pacific  coast,  which  they  probably  occupied  from 
the  Gulf  of  San  Miguel,  in  north  latitude  8°,  where 
some  of  them  still  live  under  the  name  of  Sambos, 
down  to  the  mouth  of  the  San  Juan  River,  about  north 
latitude  4°,  on  the  affluents  of  which  stream  are  the 
Tados  and  Noanamas,  speaking  well-marked  dialects 
of  the  tongue.  To  the  east  they  reached  the  valley  of 
the  Cauca,  in  the  province  of  Antioquia.  The  Tucu- 
ras,  at  the  junction  of  the  Sinu  and  the  Rio  Verde,  are 
probably  their  easternmost  branch.* 

*On  the  Chocos  consult  Zeitschrift  fur  Ethnologic,  1876,  s.  359  ; 
Felipe  Perez,  Jeografia  del  Estado  del  Cauca,  p.  229,  sq.  (Bogota, 
1862.)  The  vocabulary  of  Chami,  collected  near  Marmato  by  C. 
Greiffenstein,  and  published  in  Zcitschrift  fur  Ethnologic,  1878, 


176  THE   AMERICAN    RACE. 

Anthropologically,  they  resemble  the  Cunas,  having 
brachycephalic  skulls,  with  large  faces,  but  are  rather 
taller  and  of  darker  color.  Here  the  resemblance 
ceases,  for  they  are  widely  dissimilar  in  language,  in 
customs  and  in  temperament.  Instead  of  being  war- 
like and  quarrelsome,  they  are  mild  and  peaceable ; 
they  lived  less  in  villages  and  communal  houses  than 
in  single  isolated  huts.  Most  of  them  are  now 
Catholics  and  cultivate  the  soil.  They  have  little 
energy  and  live  miserably.  At  the  time  of  the  con- 
quest they  were  a  trafficking  people,  obtaining  salt 
from  the  saline  springs  and  gold  from  the  quartz  lodes, 
which  they  exchanged  with  the  tribes  of  the  interior. 
Some  of  them  were  skilful  in  working  the  metal,  and 
fine  specimens  of  their  products  have  been  obtained 
from  their  ancestral  tombs. 

CHOCO   LINGUISTIC  STOCK. 

Angaguedas,  west  of  province  of  Cauca. 

Canasgordas,  west  of  province  of  Cauca. 

Caramanlas,  west  of  province  of  Cauca. 

CAocos,  on  Rio  Atrato. 

Chamis,  near  Marmato. 

Chiamus  or  Chocamus,  on  the  Pacific. 

Citaraes,  on  Rio  Buei  and  Rio  Bucliado. 

Murindoes. 

Necodades. 

IVoanamas,  on  head-waters  of  Rio  San  Juan.  ^ 

Paparos,  between  rivers  Sapa  and  Puero. 

Patoes. 

Rio  Verdes,  on  the  Rio  Verde. 

p.  135,  is  Choco.  The  vocabulary  of  the  Tucuras,  given  by  Dr. 
Ernst  in  the  Verhandlungen  der  Berliner  Anthrop.  Gesell.,  1887, 
p.  302,  is  quite  pure  Choco.  The  Chocos  call  their  language  em- 
bera  bede,  * '  the  speech  of  men. ' ' 


VENEZUELAN  TRIBES. 

Sambos,  on  Rio  Sambo,  south  of  Gulf  of  San  Miguel. 
Tados,  head-waters  of  Rio  San  Juan. 
Tucuras,  on  Rio  Senu. 

It  is  worth  while  recording  the  names  and  positions 
of  the  other  native  tribes  along  the  northern  coast  at 
the  time  of  the  discovery,  even  if  we  are  unable  to  iden- 
tify their  linguistic  connections.  An  official  report 
made  in  1546  furnishes  a  part  of  this  information.* 
At  that  time  and  previously  the  eastern  shore  of  Ven- 
ezuela was  peopled  by  the  Chirigotos,  who  are  probably 
the  Chagaragotos  of  later  authors. f  Their  western 
neighbors  were  the  Caracas,  near  the  present  city  of 
that  name.  They  were  warlike,  wove  hamacs,  pois- 
oned their  arrows,  and  wore  ornaments  of  gold.  The 
whole  coast  from  Caracas  to  Lake  Maracaibo  was  in 
possession  of  the  Caquetios,  who  also  wove  hamacs, 
and  dwelt  in  stationary  villages.  They  were  of 
milder  disposition  and  friendly,  and  as  a  consequence 
were  early  enslaved  and  destroyed  by  the  Spaniards. 
Even  at  the  date  of  the  Relation  they  had  disappeared 
from  the  shore.  It  is  possible  that  they  fled  far  in- 
land, and  gave  their  name  in  later  days  to  the  river 
Caqueta. 

Along  the  eastern  border  of  Lake  Maracaibo  were 
the  Onotes,  "  The  Lords  of  the  Lagoon,"  Senores  de 
la  Laguna,  a  fine  race,  whose  women  were  the 
handsomest  along  the  shore.  \  They  lived  in  houses 

*  ' '  Relacion  de  las  tierras  y  provincias  de  la  gobernacion  de  Ven 
ezuela  (1546),"  in  Oviedo  y  Banos,  Historia  de  Venezuela,  Tom. 
II.  Appendice.  (Ed.  Madrid,  1885.) 

|  Aristides  Rojas,  Estudios  Indigenes,  p.  46.     (Caracas,  1878.) 
\  "  Mashermosas  y  agraciadas  que  las  de  otros  de  aquel  conti- 
12 


THE  AMERICAN   RACE. 

built  on  piles  in  the  lake,  and  fished  in  its  waters 
with  nets  and  hooks.  They  traded  their  fish  for 
maize  and  yuca  to  the  Bobures.  These  dwelt  on  the 
southern  shore  of  the  lake,  and  are  distinguished  as 
erecting  temples,  mesquites  adoratorios,  for  their  re- 
ligious rites.*  The  Sierra  on  the  west  of  the  lake 
was  the  home  of  the  warlike  Coromochos. 

These  warriors  probably  belonged  to  the  Goajiros, 
who  then,  as  now,  occupied  the  peninsula  on  the 
northwest  of  Lake  Maracaibo. 

It  is  not  easy  to  say  who  were  the  Tirripis  and 
Turbacos,  who  lived  about  the  mouth  of  the  Magda- 
lena  River,  though  the  names  remind  us  of  the 
Chibcha  stock.  Approaching  the  Gulf  of  Darien 
from  the  east,  we  find  the  highlands  and  shores  on 
its  west  peopled  by  the  Caimanes.  These  undoubt- 
edly belonged  to  the  Cunas,  as  is  proved  by  the  words 
collected  among  them  in  1820  by  Joaquin  Acosta.f 
The  earliest  linguistic  evidence  about  their  extension 
dates  from  a  report  in  1515,^  in  which  the  writer  says 
that  all  along  this  coast,  up  to  and  beyond  San  Bias, 

nente."  This  was  the  opinion  of  Alonzo  de  Ojeda,  who  saw  them 
in  1499  and  later.  (Navarrete,  Viages,  Tom.  III.,  p.  9).  Their  la- 
custrine villages  reminded  him  so  much  of  Venice  (Venezia)  that 
he  named  the  country  "  Venezuela." 

*  According  to  Lares,  the  Bobures  and  Motilones  lived  adjacent, 
and  to  the  north  of  theTimotes.  The  Motilones  were  of  the  Carib 
stock.  See  Dr.  A.  Ernst,  in  Zcitschrift  fur Ethnologic ',  1885,  p.  190. 

t  Joaquin  Acosta,  Compend.  Hist,  de  la  Nueva  Granada,  p.  31, 
note. 

|  Martin  Fernandez  de  Enciso,  La  Suma  de  Geografia.  (Sevilla, 
1519. )  This  rare  work  is  quoted  by  J.  Acosta.  Enciso  was  algua- 
cil  mayor  of  Castilla  de  Oro  in  1515. 


VENEZUELAN   TRIBES.  1/9 

the  natives  call  a  man  uma  and  a  woman  ira,  which 
are  words  from  the  Cuna  dialects. 

In  the  mountainous  district  of  Merida,  south  of  the 
plains  in  the  interior  from  Lake  Maracaibo,  there 
still  dwell  the  remains  of  a  number  of  small  bands 
speaking  dialects  of  a  stock  which  has  been  called 
from  one  of  its  principal  members,  the  Timote.  It 
has  been  asserted  to  display  a  relationship  to  the 
Chibcha,  but  the  comparisons  I  have  made  do  not  re- 
veal such  connection.  It  seems  to  stand  alone,  as  an 
independent  tongue. 

All  the  Timotes  paid  attention  to  agriculture,  rais- 
ing maize,  pepper  and  esculent  roots  of  the  potato 
character.  Those  who  lived  in  the  warm  regions 
painted  their  bodies  red  and  went  naked  ;  while  those 
in  the  uplands  threw  around  them  a  square  cotton 
blanket  fastened  at  the  waist.  Some  of  them  buried 
their  dead  in  caves,  as  the  Quindoraes  on  the  banks 
of  the  Motatan.  With  them  they  placed  small  figures 
in  terra  cotta.  The  Mocochies,  living  where  caves 
are  rare,  built  underground  vaults  for  their  dead, 
closing  the  entrance  with  a  great  stone.* 

From  the  writings  of  Lares  and  Ernst  I  make  the 
following  list  of  the  members  of  the 


TIMOTE  LINGUISTIC  STOCK. 

Aricaguas. 

Iguinos, 

Mombunes. 

Tabayones. 

Aviamos. 

Insumubies. 

Mucuchaies. 

laparros. 

Bailadores. 

Jajies. 

Mucunchies. 

Taluyes. 

Canaguaes. 

Miguries. 

Mucurabaes. 

Tiguinos. 

*  See  Jose  Ignacio  Lares,  Resunten  de  las  Adas  de  la  Academia 
Venezolana,  1886,  p.  37  (Caracas,  1886)  ;  and  Dr.  Ernst,  in  Zeit- 
schriftfur  Ethnologic,  1885,  s.  190. 


I  SO  THE   AMERICAN    RACE. 

Chantas.  Mirripuyas.  Mucutuyes.  Tricaguas. 

Escagueyes.  Mocochies.  Quindotaes. 

Guaraques.  Mocolos.  Quinos. 

Guaquis.  Mocombos.  Quiroraes. 

Few  of  these  names  are  found  in  the  older  writers. 
In  the  Taparros  we  recognize  the  "  Zaparas,"  who, 
in  the  last  century,  lived  in  contiguity  to  the  Goajiros 
of  the  adjacent  peninsula.*  The  Mucuchis  gave 
their  name  to  an  early  settlement  of  that  name  in  the 
province  of  Merida.f  The  prefix  muco  or  moco, 
which  is  very  common  in  place-names  of  that  region, 
is  believed  by  Lares  to  have  a  locative  significance. 
Such  names  give  approximately  the  extent  of  the 
dialects  at  the  settlement  of  the  country. 

In  the  highlands  near  the  present  city  of  Caracas, 
and  in  the  fertile  valleys  which  surround  the  beauti- 
ful inland  lake  of  Valencia  to  the  southeast,  were  at 
the  discovery  a  number  of  tribes  whose  names, 
Arbacos,  Mariches,  Merigotos,  etc.,  give  us  no  in- 
formation as  to  their  affinities.  They  are  now  ex- 
tinct, and  nothing  of  their  languages  has  been  pre- 
served. All  the  more  store  do  we  set  by  the  archae- 
ology of  the  district,  about  which  valuable  informa- 
tion has  been  contributed  by  Dr.  G.  Marcano.  \  He 
opened  a  number  of  burial  mounds  where  the  bones 
of  the  dead,  after  having  been  denuded  of  flesh, 
were  interred,  together  with  ornaments  and  utensils. 

*  G.  Coleti,  Dizionario  deW  America  Meridionale,  s.  v.  (Ven- 
ezia,  1771.)  Not  to  be  confounded  with  the  Zaparos  of  the  Maranon. 

t  Ibid.,  s.  v. 

J  G.  Marcano,  Ethnographic  Pre-Columbienne  de  Venezuela. 
(Paris,  1889.) 


THE  CHIBCHA  LANGUAGE.  l8l 

These  were  in  stone,  bone  and  terra  cotta,  the  only 
metal  being  gold  in  small  quantity.  The  character 
of  the  work  showed  the  existence  of  a  culture  belong- 
ing to  the  highest  stage  of  polished  stone.  Many  of 
the  skulls  were  artificially  deformed  to  a  high  degree, 
the  frontal  obliquity  in  some  cases  being  double  the 
normal.  Add  to  this  that  there  was  present  an 
almost  unexampled  prognathism,  and  we  have  crania 
quite  without  similars  in  other  parts  of  the  continent. 
When  not  deformed  they  were  brachycephalic,  and 
both  series  gave  a  respectable  capacity,  1470,  c.  c. 

2.   The  CJiibcJias. 

Most  of  the  writers  on  the  Chibchas  have  spoken 
of  them  as  a  nation  standing  almost  civilized  in  the 
midst  of  barbarous  hordes,  and  without  affinities  to 
any  other.  Both  of  these  statements  are  erroneous. 
The  Chibchas  proper,  or  Muyscas,  are  but  one  mem- 
ber of  a  numerous  family  of  tribes  which  extended  in 
both  directions  from  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  and 
thus  had  representatives  in  North  as  well  as  South 
America.  The  Chibcha  language  was  much  more 
widely  disseminated  throughout  New  Granada  at  the 
time  of  the  discovery  than  later  writers  have  appreci- 
ated. It  was  the  general  tongue  of  nearly  all  the 
provinces,  and  occupied  the  same  position  with  refer- 
ence to  the  other  idioms  that  the  Kechua  did  in 
Peru.*  Indeed,  most  of  the  tribes  in  New  Granada 

*  "  La  lingua  Muysca,  detta  anticamente  Chybcha,  era  la  comune 
e  generale  in  tuttigl*  Indiani  di  quella  Monarchia."  Coleti,  Diz- 
ionario  Storico-Geografico  dell  ''America  Meridionale,  Tom.  II., 
p.  39.  (Venezia,  1771.)  - 


1 82  THE    AMERICAN    RACE. 

were  recognized  as  members  of  this  stock.*  Nor 
were  they  so  much  above  their  neighbors  in  culture. 
Many  of  these  also  were  tillers  of  the  soil,  weavers 
and  spinners  of  cotton,  diggers  of  gold  in  the  quartz 
lodes,  skilled  in  moulding  and  hammering  it  into 
artistic  shapes,  and  known  widely  as  energetic  mer- 
chants. 

No  doubt  the  Chibchas  had  carried  this  culture  to 
the  highest  point  of  all  the  family.  Their  home  was 
on  the  southern  confines  of  the  stock,  in  the  valleys 
of  Bogota  and  Tunja,  where  their  land  extended  from 
the  fourth  to  the  sixth  degree  of  north  latitude,  about 
the  head-waters  of  the  Sogamoso  branch  of  the  Mag- 
dalena.  Near  the  mouth  of  this  river  on  its  eastern 
shore,  rises  the  Sierra  of  Santa  Marta,  overlooking 
the  open  sea,  and  continuing  to  the  neck  of  the  pen- 
insula of  Goajira.  These  mountains  were  the  home 
time  out  of  mind  of  the  Aroacos,  a  tribe  in  a  condi- 
tion of  barbarism,  but  not  distantly  related  in  lan- 
guage to  the  Chibchas. 

When  the  Spaniards  first  undertook  the  conquest 
of  this  Sierra,  they  met  with  stubborn  resistance 
from  the  Tayronas  and  Chimilas,  who  lived  among 
these  hills.  They  were  energetic  tribes,  cultivating 
fields  of  maize,  yucca,  beans  and  cotton,  which  latter 
they  wove  and  dyed  for  clothing.  Not  only  were 

*  "  Casi  todos  los  pueblos  del  Nuevo  Reyno  de  Granada  son  de 
Indios  Mozcas."  Alcedo,  Diccionario  Geografico  de  America, 
s.  v.  Moscas.  "  La  lengua  Mosca  es  como  general  en  estendissima 
parte  de  aquel  territorio  ;  en  cada  nacion  la  hablan  de  distinta 
manera."  J.  Cassani,  Historia  del  Nuevo  Reyno  de  Granada, 
p.  48.  (Madrid,  1741.)  He  especially  names  the  Chitas,  Guacicas, 
Morcotes  and  Tunebos  as  speaking  Chibcha. 


THE  CHIBCHA    STOCK.  183 

they  versed  in  stratagems,  but  they  knew  some  deadly 
poison  for  their  arrows.* 

In  later  generations  the  Tayronas  disappear  en- 
tirely from  history,  but  I  think  the  suggestion  is  well 
founded  that  they  merely  became  merged  with  the 
Chimilas,  with  whom  they  were  always  associated, 
and  who  still  survive  in  the  same  locality  as  a 
civilized  tribe.  We  have  some  information  about 
their  language.f  It  shows  sufficient  affinity  with  the 
Chibcha  to  justify  me  in  classing  the  Tayronas  and 
Chimilas  in  that  group. 

An  imperfect  vocabulary  of  the  native  residents  of 
Siquisique  in  the  state  of  Lara,  formerly  the  province 
of  Barquisimetro,  inclines  me  to  unite  them  with  the 
Aroac  branch  of  this  stock,  though  their  dialect  is 
evidently  a  mixed  one.:}; 

A  still  more  interesting  extension  of  this  stock  was 
that  which  it  appears  to  have  had  at  one  time  in  the 
northern  continent.  A  number  of  tribes  beyond  the 
straits,  in  the  states  of  Panama  and  Costa  Rica,  were 

*  Herrera,  Historic,  de  las  Indicts  Occidentals,  Dec.  IV.,  Lib.  X., 
cap.  8. 

f  Rafael  Celedon,  Gramatica  de  la  Lengua  Koggaba,  Introd.,  p. 
xxiv.  (Bibliotheque  Linguistique  Americaine.} 

\  The  vocabulary  is  furnished  by  General  Juan  Thomas  Perez,  in 
the  Resumen  de  las  Adas  de  la  Academia  Venezolana,  1886,  p.  54. 
I  offer  for  comparison  the  following  : 

SIQUISIQUB.  CHIBCHA-AROAC. 

Sun,  yuan,  yuia. 

Wife,  esw,  sena. 

Fire,  duegt  gue. 

Water,  ing>  ni. 

Snake,  tubt  kibi. 


1 84  THE    AMERICAN    RACE. 

either  filially  connected  or  deeply  influenced  by  the 
outposts  of  the  Chibcha  nation.  These  were  the 
Guaymis  in  Veraguas,  who  possessed  the  soil  from 
ocean  to  ocean,  and  the  Talamancas  of  Costa  Rica, 
who  in  a  number  of  small  sub-tribes  extended  quite 
to  the  boundaries  of  the  present  state  of  Nicaragua. 
It  has  been  recently  shown,  and  I  think  on  satisfac- 
tory evidence,  that  their  idioms  contain  a  large  num- 
ber of  Chibcha  words,  and  of  such  a  class  that  they 
could  scarcely  have  been  merely  borrowed,  but  point 
to  a  prolonged  admixture  of  stocks.*  Along  with 
these  terms  are  others  pointing  to  a  different  family 
of  languages,  perhaps,  as  has  long  been  suspected,  to 
some  of  the  Carib  dialects ;  but  up  to  the  present  time 
they  must  be  said  not  to  have  been  identified. 

Thus  Lucien  Adam  has  pointed  out  that  the  two 
groups  of  the  Guaymi  dialects  differ  as  widely,  as 
follows : 


MtTOI-MUR- 

VAUENTE- 

IRE-SAVANERO. 

GU  A  YMI-NORTENO  . 

Sun, 

cut, 

nono,  noana. 

Moon, 

dai, 

so,  go. 

Water, 

a,  cat 

no,  nu. 

Man, 

cuia, 

ni-togua. 

Woman, 

tnoima, 

ni-uire. 

Eye, 

guagava, 

ogua. 

Nose, 

se,  chegua, 

ni-don,  domo. 

Foot, 

sera, 

n-goto. 

*  The  connection  of  the  Aroac  (not  Arawak)  dialects  with  the 
Chibcha  was,  I  believe,  first  pointed  out  by  Friederich  Muller,  in 
his  Grundriss  der  Sprachwissenschaft,  Bd.  IV.,  s.  189,  note.  The 
fact  was  also  noted  independently  by  Dr.  Max  Uhle,  who  added 
the  Guaymis  and  Talamancas  to  the  family.  (Compte  Rendu  du 
Congres  Internal,  des  Amtricanistes,  iSSS,  p.  466. 


THE   CHIBCHA   STOCK.  185 

Dr.  Max  Uhle,  in  a  late  essay,  has  collected  nu- 
merous verbal  identities  between  the  various  Guaymi 
and  Talamanca  dialects  on  the  one  hand,  and  the 
Aroac  and  Chibcha  on  the  other,  including  most  of 
the  simple  numerals  and  many  words  besides  those 
which  would  be  likely  to  be  introduced  by  commerce. 
Not  stopping  with  this,  he  has  successfully  developed 
a  variety  of  laws  of  vowel  and  consonant  changes 
in  the  dialects,  which  bring  the  resemblance  of  the 
two  groups  into  strong  relief  and  do  away  with  much 
of  their  seeming  diversity.  Moreover,  he  points  out 
that  the  terminations  of  the  present  and  imperative 
are  identical,  and  the  placement  of  words  in  the  sen- 
tence alike  in  both.  These  and  his  other  arguments 
are  sufficient,  I  think,  to  establish  his  thesis ;  and  I 
am  at  greater  pains  to  set  it  forth,  as  I  regard 
it  as  one  of  unusual  importance  in  its  bearing  on 
the  relations  which  existed  in  pre-historic  times 
between  tribes  along  the  boundary  of  the  two  con- 
tinents. 

As  to  the  course  of  migration,  I  do  not  think  that 
the  discussion  of  the  dialectic  changes  leaves  any  room 
for  doubt.  They  all  indicate  attrition  and  loss  of  the 
original  form  as  we  trace  them  from  South  into  North 
America  ;  evidently  the  wandering  hordes  moved  into 
the  latter  from  the  southern  continent.  So  far,  there 
is  no  evidence  that  any  North  American  tribe  migrated 
into  South  America. 

To  illustrate  these  points  I  quote  from  Uhle's  tables 
the  following : 


1 86 


THE  AMERICAN   RACE. 


Comparison  of  the  Chibcha  with  the 

(T.=Talamanca.     G.= 

CHIBCHA. 


Head, 

Ear, 

Tongue, 

Breasts, 

Navel, 

Foot, 

Bird, 

Fish, 

Snake, 

Ant, 

Maize, 

Stone, 

Water, 

Sun, 

House, 

Comb, 

One, 

Two, 

Three, 


zysqut, 

cu/iuca, 

pcua, 

chue, 

mue, 

guihycat 

sue, 

gua, 

tacbi, 

*><?, 

aba, 

hyca, 

siet 

sua, 


cuza, 
ata, 
boza, 
mica, 


Costa  Rican  Dialects. 
Guaymi.) 

COSTA  RICA. 

dzekung,  T.,  thokua,  G. 

kuku,  T. 

ku,  T. 

tsu,  T. 

mdwo,  T. 

ketscha,  T. 

du,  T.,  nukua,  G. 

gua,  G. 

thekebe,  G. 

tsa,  T. 

ep,  T. 

hak,  T. 

di,  T.,  chi,  G. 

chui,  G. 

hu,  T.,  xu,  G. 

kasch,  T. 

<?/,  T.,  ft',  G. 

du,  T.,  £«,  G. 

mia,  T.,  raaz,  G. 


The  numerous  relics  which  since  1859  have  been 
disinterred  from  the  ancient  sepulchres  of  Chiriqui 
may  be  attributed  to  the  members  of  this  stock; 
perhaps,  as  M.  Pinart  has  suggested,  to  the  ancestors 
of  the  Guaymis,  or,  as  Dr.  Berendt  thought,  to  the 
Cunas  or  Coibas.*  These  graves  are  scattered  in 
small  groups  or  cemeteries,  rarely  more  than  ten  acres 
in  extent,  over  the  Pacific  slope  of  the  province  of 
Chiriqui.  The  similarity  of  the  culture  of  their 
makers  to  that  of  the  Chibchas  has  not  failed  to  im- 
press archaeological  experts.  Thus,  W.  H.  Holmes 


*  Pinart,  Bulletin  de  la  Societe  de  Geographic,  1885  ;  Berendt, 
in  Bull,  of  Amer.  Geog.  Society,  1876,  No.  2. 


CULTURE   OF   CHIBCHAS.  1 87 

remarks  in  his  admirable  article  on  the  "  Art  of 
Chiriqui,"  "  In  their  burial  customs,  in  the  lack  of 
enduring  houses  or  temples,  and  in  their  use  of  gold, 
they  were  like  the  ancient  peoples  of  middle  and 
southern  New  Granada."  * 

These  relics  are  in  stone,  in  pottery  of  many 
varieties  and  forms,  and  in  the  metals  gold,  copper, 
silver  and  tin  in  various  alloys.  So  large  was  the 
quantity  of  gold  that  from  a  single  cemetery  over 
fifty  thousand  dollars  in  value  have  been  extracted. 
No  wonder  that  Columbus  and  his  companions  gave 
to  this  region  the  appellation  Castillo  del  Oro,  Golden 
Castile". 

Such  a  condition  of  civilization  is  in  accord  with 
the  earliest  descriptions  of  the  Chiriqui  tribes.  When 
in  1521  Francisco  Compafion  overran  their  country, 
he  found  the  Borucas  and  their  neighbors  living  in 
villages  surrounded  with  high  wooden  palisades,  the 
posts  firmly  lashed  together,  making  a  solid  wall  of 
defence.f 

The  culture  of  the  Chibchas  has  been  portrayed  by 
numerous  writers,  and  it  deserves  to  rank  as  next  to 
that  of  the  Nahuas  and  Kechuas,  though  in  many 
respects  inferior  to  both  of  these.  Their  chiefs  held 
by  succession  through  the  female  side,  the  matri- 

*  In  Sixth  Annual  Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology.  Wash- 
ington, 1888. 

t  Joaquin  Acosta,  Compendia  Historico  de  la  Nueva  Granada, 
p.  77.  When,  in  1606,  the  missionary  Melchor  Hernandez  visited 
Chiriqui  lagoon,  he  found  six  distinct  languages  spoken  on  and 
near  its  shores  by  tribes  whom  he  names  as  follows  :  Cothos,  Bor- 
isques,  Dorasques,  Utelaes,  Bugabaes,  Zunes,  Dolegas,  Chagres, 
Zaribas,  Dures.  (/</.,  p.  454.) 


1 88  THE  AMERICAN   RACE. 

archal  system  prevailing  throughout  their  tribes. 
Agriculture  was  diligently  pursued,  the  products  be- 
ing maize,  potatoes,  yucca  and  cotton.  Artificial 
irrigation  by  means  of  ditches  was  in  extended  use. 
Salt  was  prepared  on  a  large  scale  by  evaporation,  and 
their  skill  in  the  manufacture  of  cotton  cloth  was 
notable.  Copper  and  bronze  were  unknown,  and  all 
their  tools  and  weapons  were  of  wood  and  stone.  In 
this  respect  they  were  in  arrears  of  their  not  distant 
neighbors,  the  Kechuas.  Gold,  however,  they  had  in 
quantity,  and  knew  how  to  smelt  it  and  to  work 
it  into  vases  and  ornaments  of  actual  beauty.  The 
use  of  stone  for  building  was  unknown,  and  their  finest 
structures  were  with  wooden  walls  coated  with  clay 
and  roofed  with  straw. 

In  spite  of  what  has  sometimes  been  brought  for- 
ward, it  is  not  likely  that  they  had  any  method  of 
writing,  and  much  that  has  been  advanced  about  their 
calendar  is  of  doubtful  correctness.  They  had  neither 
the  quipos  of  the  Peruvians  nor  the  picture-writing 
of  the  Mexicans.  The  carved  stones  which  have 
sometimes  been  produced  as  a  species  of  calendar 
were  probably  merely  moulds  for  hammering  gold  into 
shape. 

Quite  a  body  of  their  mythologic  legends  have  been 
preserved,  replete  with  interest  to  the  student  of  the 
religious  sentiment  of  this  race.  They  indicate  an 
active  imagination  and  may  be  regarded  as  quite  au- 
thentic. 

The  Chibchas  proper,  as  well  as  the  Aroacos,  were 
meso-  or  brachycephalic,  the  cephalic  index  ranging 
above  80.  They  were  of  moderate  stature,  dark  in 


THE   CHIBCHA   STOCK.  189 

color,  the  face  broad,  the  eyes  dark  and  often  slightly 
oblique,  the  cheek-bones  prominent  and  the  general 
appearance  not  handsome. 

CHIBCHA   LINGUISTIC   STOCK. 

Aruacs  (Aroacos),  in  Sierra  Nevada  de  Santa  Marta  and  on 

Rio  Paramo. 

Bintucuas,  a  sub-tribe  of  the  Aruacs. 
Borucas,  sub-tribe  of  Talamancas. 
Bribris,  sub-tribe  of  Talamancas. 
Bruncas,  see  Borucas. 
Cabccars,  sub- tribe  of  Talamancas. 
Chibchas,  on  upper  Rio  Magdalena,  near  Bogota. 
Chicamochas,  about  4°  N.  lat. 
Chimilas,  in  the  sierra  of  Santa  Marta. 
Chitas  or  Chiscas,  near  Sierra  de  Morcote. 
Duits,  near  Duitama. 

Guacicos,  east  of  Bogota,  on  the  head-waters  of  Rio  Meta. 
Guamacas,  a  sub-tribe  of  Aruacs. 

Guaymis,  on  both  slopes  of  the  Cordillera,  in  Veraguas. 
Koggabas,  a  sub-tribe  of  the  Aruacs. 
Morcotes,  near  San  Juan  de  los  Llanos. 
Muois,  a  sub-tribe  of  the  Guaymis. 
Murires,  a  sub-tribe  of  the  Guaymis.     ./ 
Muyscas,  see  Chibchas, 
Sinsigas,  in  the  sierra  near  Tunja. 

Talamancas,  in  the  sierra  in  Costa  Rica. 

Tayronas,  in  the  Sierra  de  Santa  Marta. 

Terrabas,  a  sub-tribe  of  Talamancas. 

Tirribis,  a  sub-tribe  of  Talamancas. 

Tucurriqties,  a  sub-tribe  of  the  Talamancas.  ^ 

Tunebos,  in  the  sierra  east  of  Bogota. 

Valientes,  a  sub-tribe  of  the  Guaymis. 

j.     The  Paniquitas  and  Paezes. 

A  number  of  tribes  living  to  the  north  and  west  of 
the  Chibchas  seem  to  have  belonged  to  one  stock. 
They  are  mentioned  by  the  older  historians  as  acting 


190 


THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 


in  alliance,  as  in  constant  war  with  the  Chibchas, 
and  several  of  them  as  speaking  dialects  of  a  tongue 
wholly  different  from  the  Chibchas.  Their  stage  of 
culture  was  lower,  but  they  were  acquainted  with  the 
bow,  the  sling  and  the  war-club,  and  had  fixed  habi- 
tations. I  give  the  list  of  these  presumably  related 
tribes,  and  apply  to  the  stock  the  name  of  one  of  the 
modern  tribes  which  retain  the  language.* 

PANIQUITA   LINGUISTIC  STOCK. 
Canapeis,  sub-tribe  of  Colimas  (Herrera). 

Colimas,  on  the  right  bank  of  Magdalena,  adjacent  to  the  Musos. 
Manipos,  adjacent  to  the  Pijoas. 
Musos,  on  right  bank  of  the  Magdalena,  adjacent  and  north  of 

the  Muyscas. 

Nantas,  on  the  Rio  Carari. 
Paezes,  on  the  central  Cordillera. 

Punches,  on  the  east  bank  of  Magdalena,  near  Tocayma. 
Paniquitas,  between  upper  waters  of  the  Magdalena  and  Cauca. 
Pantagoros,  on  both  shores  of  the  Magdalena  and  in  province  of 

Quimbaya. 
Pijaos,  in  Popayan,  on  the  Cauca  and  Neyva. 

My  reasons  for  identifying  the  modern  Paniquitas 
and  Paezes  with  the  ancient  tribes  named  are,  first, 
the  identity  of  the  location,  and  secondly,  the  pres- 
ence of  the  initial  syllable  pan  in  the  names  of  two  of 
the  principal  extinct  peoples,  a  word  which  in  Pani- 
quita  means  "  mountain,"  and  clearly  refers  to  the 
position  of  their  villages  in  the  sierra,  between  the 
head-waters  of  the  Cauca  and  Magdalena  Rivers. 

*  The  only  information  I  have  on  the  Paniquita  dialect  is  that 
given  in  the  Revue  de  Linguistique,  July,  1879,  by  a  missionary 
(name  not  furnished).  It  consists  of  a  short  vocabulary  and  some 
grammatical  remarks. 


MYTHS  OF  THE   MUSOS.  191 

Among  the  references  in  the  older  writers,  I  may 
mention  that  Herrera  states  that  the  language  of  the 
Panches  was  one  of  the  most  extended  in  that  part  of 
the  country,  and  that  the  tribes  speaking  it  almost 
surrounded  the  Muyscas;*  and  Piedrahita  specifically 
adds  that  the  Pijaos,  the  most  powerful  tribe  in 
Popayan,  whose  territory  extended  from  Cartago  to 
the  city  of  Popayan,  along  the  valley  of  the  Neyva, 
and  quite  to  San  Juan  de  los  Llanos,  belonged  to  the 
same  stock  as  the  Pantagoros. 

Some  fragments  have  been  preserved  from  the 
mythology  of  the  Musos,  who  lived  about  24  leagues 
northwest  of  Santa  Fe,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Magdalena.  Their  legends  pointed  for  the  home  of 
their  ancestors  to  the  left  or  western  side  of  the  river. 
Here  dwelt,  lying  in  a  position  of  eternal  repose,  the 
Creator,  a  shadow  whose  name  was  Are.  Ages  ago  he 
carved  for  his  amusement  two  figures  in  wood,  a 
man  and  a  woman,  and  threw  them  into  the  river. 
They  rose  from  its  waters  as  living  beings,  and 
marrying,  became  the  ancestors  of  the  human 
species. f 

Most  of  these  tribes  are  reported  to  have  flattened 
artificially  their  heads,  and  to  have  burned  the  bodies 
of  their  dead,  or,  in  Popoyan,  to  have  mummified 
them  by  long  exposure  to  a  slow  fire. 

The  Paezes  live  on  both  slopes  of  the  central  Cor- 
dillera, across  the  valley  of  the  Magdalena  from 
Bogota,  some  two  thousand  in  number,  in  twenty-one 

*  Herrera,  Description  de  las  Indias  Occidentals,  Cap.  XVI. 
f  Alcedo,  Diccionario  Geografao,  s.  v.,  Muzos. 


IQ2  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

villages.  They  prefer  the  high  altitudes,  and  are  a 
hardy  set  of  hunters  and  mountaineers.  In  spite  of 
the  cold  they  go  nearly  naked,  but  what  is  rare  among 
native  Americans,  they  wear  a  hat  of  reeds  or  bark, 
resembling  in  this  some  Peruvian  tribes.  Nor  are 
they  devoid  of  skill  in  hammering  gold  into  orna- 
ments, and  weaving  fibres  of  the  maguey  into  mats 
and  cloths.  One  of  their  peculiar  customs  is  to  burn 
down  a  house  whenever  a  birth  or  a  death  takes  place 
in  it.  The  harsh  dialect  they  speak  has  been  ren- 
dered accessible  by  a  publication  of  Seftor  Uricoechea. 
Its  practical  identity  with  the  Panequita  is  obvious 
from  the  following  comparison  :  * 

PANEQUITA.  PAEZ. 

Eye,  yafi,  yafi. 

Hand,  kousseh,  cose. 

House,  iat,  yath. 

Man,  pitsto,  pizpetam. 

Tongue,  tunneh,  tone. 

Tooth,  kit,  quith. 

Two,  hendsta,  enz. 

Three,  tejta,  tec. 

Four,  pansta,  panz. 

4..    South  Columbian    Tribes,  Natives  of  Caitca,   Cocon- 

ucos,  Barbacoas,  Andaquis,  Mocoas,  Caiiaris. 
In  the  states  of  Cauca  and  Antioquia  there  are 
scarcely  any  full-blood  natives  remaining,  and  the 
tribes  after  the  conquest  were  so  shifted  about  that 
it  is  difficult  to  know  to  which  of  them  we  should 
attribute  the  abundant  remains  of  ancient  art  which 

*  Vocabulario  Paez-Castellano \  por  Eujenio  del  Castillo  i  Orosco. 
Con  adiciones  por  Ezequiel  Uricoechea.  Paris,  1877.  ( Bibliothe'que 
L,inguistique  Americaiue.) 


TRIBES   OF   CAUCA.  IQ3 

are  scattered  profusely  over  this  region.  There  are 
numerous  sepulchral  tumuli,  especially  in  the  Fron- 
tino  and  Dabeiba  districts,  which  yield  a  rich  harvest 
to  the  antiquary.  They  contain  gold  figures,  vases 
and  ornaments,  stone  implements  of  uncommon  per- 
fection, mirrors  of  polished  pyrites,  and  small  images 
in  stone  and  terra  cotta.  There  are  also  remarkable 
ruins  in  the  valley  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata,  an  affluent 
of  the  upper  Magdalena.  They  consist  in  colossal 
statues  rudely  carved  from  stone,  and  edifices  of  the 
same  material,  partly  underground,  the  walls  of  large 
slabs,  and  the  roof  supported  by  cylindrical  carved 
pillars.  A  few  of  these  still  remain  intact,  but  the 
majority  have  been  wrecked  by  the  earthquakes  and 
by  the  vandalism  of  treasure-hunters.* 

In  an  attempt  to  restore  the  ancient  ethnography 
of  this  region,  Dr.  Posada-Arango  thinks  the  former 
tribes  can  be  classed  under  three  principal  nations:  f 

1.  The  Catios,  west  of  the  river  Cauca. 

2.  The   Nutabes,    on  the  right  bank  of  the  Cauca, 
in  its  central  course. 

3.  The   Takamies,  toward  the  east  and  south. 

In  addition  to  these,  there  are  the  Yamacies,  near 
the  present  city  of  Saragossa. 

According  to  the  early  records,  these  tribes  lived  in 
fixed  habitations  constructed  of  wood  and  roofed  with 

*  Felipe  Perez,  Geografia  del  Estado  de  Tolima,  p.  76  (Bogota 
1863);  R.  B.  White,  \\\  Journal  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society  > 
1883,  pp.  250-2. 

f  Dr.  A.  Posada-Arango,   "  Essai  Ethnographiquesurles  Aborig- 
enes  de  1'Etat  d'Antioquia,"  in  the  Bulletin  de  la  Societe  Anthrop. 
de  Paris,  1871,  p.  202. 
13 


194  THE  AMERICAN   RACE. 

thatch.  They  were  cultivators  of  the  soil,  skilled 
in  the  manufacture  of  pottery  and  stone  implements, 
and  had  as  domestic  animals  parrots  and  a  small 
species  of  dog  (perros  de  monte).  Their  clothing  was 
of  cotton,  and  they  were  much  given  to  wearing 
ornaments,  many  of  which  were  of  gold. 

From  the  unfortunate  absence  of  linguistic  mater- 
ial, I  am  unable  to  classify  these  interesting  peoples. 

In  the  valleys  of  the  Sierra  south  of  the  Paezes 
dwelt  the  Guanucos,  described  by  the  first  explorers 
as  a  warlike  people  in  an  advanced  stage  of  culture. 
Their  houses  were  of  stone,  roofed  with  straw.  The 
sun  was  worshipped  with  elaborate  ceremonies,  in- 
cluding choruses  of  virgins  and  the  ministration  of 
thousands  of  priests.*  The  dead  were  buried  and 
the  funeral  solemnities  associated  with  human  sacri- 
fice. At  present  the  neighbors  of  the  Paezes  on  the 
western  slope  of  the  Cordillera  are  the  Moguexes  or 
Guambianos,  partially  civilized  and  carrying  on  a 
rude  agriculture.  They  are  much  given  to  dissolute 
dances  to  the  sound  of  the  marimba,  and  to  stupefying 
themselves  with  stramonium,  which  they  also  use  to 
catch  fish.f 

The  informant  of  the  Abbe  Hervas,  Sefior  Velasco, 
asserted  that  the  Guanucos  were  a  branch  of  the 
Coconucos,  who  dwelt  near  the  foot  of  the  mountain 
of  that  name  in  Popayan,  and  figure  considerably  in 

*  Thirty  thousand,  says  Herrera,  with  the  usual  extravagance  of 
the  early  writers  (Decadas  de  Indias,  Dec.  VII.,  Lib.  IV.,  cap  IV.) 

f  Leon  Douay,  in  Compte  Rendn  du  CongrZs  des  Americanistes^ 
1888,  p.  774,  who  adds  a  vocabulary  of  Moguex.  The  name  is  de- 
rived frota  Mog,  vir. 


THE  COCONUCO   STOCK.  195 

some  of  the  older  histories.*  Bollaert  learned  that 
some  of  them  still  survive,  and  obtained  a  few  words 
of  their  language,  which  he  was  also  told  was  the 
same  as  that  of  the  Pubenanos.f  I  have  found  by 
comparison  that  it  is  identical  with  that  of  the 
Moguexes  and  Totoros,  \  and  I  am  therefore  enabled  to 
present  the  following  group  as  members  of  what  I 
shall  call  the 

* Hervas,  Catologo  de  las  Lenguas  Conocidas,  Tom.  I.,  p.  279. 
Father  Juan  de  Ribera  translated  the  Catechism  into  the  Guanuca, 
but  so  far  as  I  know,  it  was  not  printed. 

t  Bollaert,  Antiquarian  and  Ethnological  Researches,  etc.,  pp.  6, 
64,  etc.  The  words  he  gives  in  Coconuca  are  : 

IN  MOGUEX. 

Sun,  puitchr,  piuchr. 

Moon,  puil,  pulue. 

Stars,  sil,  ? 

Chief,  cashu,  ? 

Maize,  dura,  purat. 

Bollaert  probably  quoted  these  without  acknowledgment  from 
Gen.  Mosquera,  Phys.  &  Polit.  Geog.  of  New  Granada,  p.  45 
(New  York,  1853). 

\  My  knowledge  of  the  Totoro  is  obtained  from  an  anonymous 
notice  published  by  a  missionary  in  the  Revue  de  Linguistique, 
July,  1879.  Its  relationship  to  the  group  is  at  once  seen  by  the 
following  comparison  : 

TOTORO.  MOGUEX. 

Man,  tnujel,  imick. 

Woman,  ishu,  schut. 

Head,  pushu,  pusts. 

Eye,  cap-tshal)  cap. 

Mouth,  trictrap,  chidbchab. 

Nose,  kirn,  kind. 

Arm,  qual,  cuald. 

Fingers,  cambil,  kambild. 


196  THE  AMERICAN   RACE. 

COCONUCA  LINGUISTIC  STOCK. 
Coconucos,  at  the  sources  of  the  Rio  Purase. 
Guanucos,  in  the  Sierra. 
Guambianos,  see  Moguexes. 

Moguexes,  on  the  western  slope  of  the  Cordillera. 
Pubenanos,  adjacent  to  the  Coconucos. 
Mosqueras,  sub-tribe  of  Moguexes. 
Polindaras,  head-waters  of  Rio  Cauca. 
Tbtoros,  in  the  Sierra  between  the  Magdalena  and  Cauca. 

To  these  should  probably  be  added  the  Conchucos 
and  Guaycos,  who  appear  to  have  been  adjacent  tribes 
speaking  the  same  tongue,  although  also  being  famil- 
iar with  the  Kechua  language.* 

In  the  upper  valleys  of  the  rivers  Daules,  Chone 
and  Tachi,  there  still  survive  some  families  of  the 
"  painted  Indians,"  who  were  referred  to  by  Cieza  de 
Leon  as  Manivis,  now  usually  called  Colorados,  but 
whose  own  name  is  Sacchas,  men  or  people.  They 
are  naturally  of  a  light  yellow  hue,  some  with  light 
hair  and  eyes,  but  are  accustomed  to  go  naked  and 
cover  their  skin  with  a  reddish  vegetable  pigment, 
which  on  the  face  is  laid  on  in  decorative  lines. 
Their  language,f  with  which  we  have  some  acquaint- 
ance, appears  to  belong  to  the  same  family  as  that  of 
the  Barbacoas,  to  whom  the  Jesuit  Father  Luca  della 
Cueva  went  as  missionary  in  1640,  and  that  of  the  Is- 
cuandes  and  the  Telembis,  all  residing  in  the  forests 
near  the  coast,  between  i°  and  2°  north  latitude. 

*See  Herrera,  Hist,  de  las  Indias,  Dec.  VI.,  Lib.  VII.,  cap.  V. 

|The  vocabulary  was  furnished  by  Bishop  Thiel.  It  is  edited 
with  useful  comments  by  Dr.  Edward  Seler  in  Original- Mittheil- 
ungcn  aus  der  Ethnologischen  Abtheilung  der  Konig.  Museen  zu 
Berlin,  No.  I.,  s.  44,  sq.  (Berlin,  1885). 


THE   BARBACOA  STOCK.  197 

These  are  described  by  M.  Andr£,  who  visited  them 
in  1880,  as  of  mixed  blood  and  reduced  to  a  few  hun- 
dreds, but  still  retaining  something  of  their  ancient 
tongue,  of  which  he  obtained  a  vocabulary  of  23 
words.  The  Cuaiqueres  he  reports  as  also  speaking 
this  idiom.* 

Velasco  mentions  that  the  Barbacoas,  Telembis  and 
Iscuandes  formed  a  confederation  governed  by  a  coun- 
cil of  nine  members  chosen  equally  from  the  three 
tribes. 

To  the  south  of  the  Telembis  and  adjoining  the 
Kechua-speaking  Morropas  in  the  district  of  La  Tola 
were  the  Cayapas,  of  whom  some  remnants  remain, 
still  preserving  their  native  tongue.  A  vocabulary 
of  it,  obtained  by  H.  Wilcszynski,  has  recently  been 
published. f  On  comparing  it  with  the  Colorado 
vocabulary  secured  by  Bishop  Thiel  and  edited  by 

*  Ed.  Andre",  in  Le  Tour  dtt  Monde,  1883,  p.  344.  From  this 
very  meagre  material  I  offer  the  following  comparison  : 

TELEMBI.  COLORADO. 

Eye,  cachu,  caco. 

Nose,  quimpu,  quinfu. 

House,  yall,  ya. 

Hand,  ch'lo,  ,                              te-de. 

Foot,  mi-tot  ne-de. 

Mother,  acud,  ay&. 

Hair,  aichi,  apichu. 

The  terminal  syllable  to  in  the  Telembi  words  for  hand  and  foot 
appears  to  be  the  Colorado  te,  branch,  which  is  also  found  in  the 
Col.  te-michti,  finger  te-chili,  arm  ornament,  and  again  in  the  Te- 
lembi fraill,  arm. 

f  In  the  Verhandlungen  der  Berliner  Anthrop.  Gesellschaft, 
1887,  ss.  597-99- 


198  THE    AMERICAN   RACE. 

Dr.  Seler,  it  is  clear  that  they  are  dialects  of  the  same 
stock,  as  will  be  seen  from  these  examples :  * 

CAYAPA.  COLORADA. 

Head,  mishpuca,  michu. 

Hair,  achua,  apichu. 

Eye,  capucua,  caco. 

Fingers,  Jia-misho,  ie-michu. 

Fire,  nin-gumat  ni. 

Water,  pi,  pi. 

Rain,  skua,  chua-ptana. 

Tree,  chi,  chi-tue. 

Night,  quepe,  quepe. 

Sister.  in-socki,  soque. 

House,  ia,  ya. 

White,  fiba,  fibaga. 

To  sleep,  casto,  catzoza. 

To  drink,  pi-cushno,  cuchi. 

The  Cayapas  are  described  as  well-built,  with  oval 
faces  and  roman  noses.f 

As  the  Barbacoas  were  the  first  known  and  prob- 
ably the  most  numerous  member  of  this  family,  I 
shall  select  their  name  to  apply  to  them  all,  and  clas- 
sify the  group  as  follows: 

BARBACOA  LINGUISTIC  STOCK. 

Barbacoas,  on  Upper  Patia  and  Telembi. 
Cayapas,  on  coast  near  La  Tola. 
Colorados,  on  Daule,  Chone  and  Tachi  Rivers. 
Cuaiqueres,  on  the  coast  about  i°  N.  Lat. 

*  Other  analogies  are  undoubted,  though  less  obvious.  Thus  in 
Cayopa,  "  man  "  is  liu-pula  ;  "  woman,"  su-pula.  In  these  words, 
the  terminal  pula  is  generic,  and  the  prefixes  are  the  Colorado 
sona,  woman,  abbreviated  to  so  in  the  Colorado  itself,  (see  Dr. 
Seler's  article,  p.  55);  and  the  Col.  chilla,  male,  which  in  the 
Spanish-American  pronunciation,  where  II— y,  is  close  to  liu. 

t  Bollaert,  Antiquarian  and  Ethnological  Researches,  p.  82. 


THE   ANDAQUIS.  IQ9 

Iscuandes,  on  Rio  Patia. 

Manivis,  head- waters  of  Rio  Telembi. 

Sacchas,  see  Colorados. 

Telembis,  on  Rio  Telembi. 

I  have,  in  obedience  to  a  sense  of  caution,  treated 
of  this  stock  as  separate  from  the  Cocanuca ;  but  the 
fragmentary  vocabularies  at  my  command  offer  a 
number  of  resemblances  between  the  two,  and  I  ex- 
pect that  ampler  material  will  show  increased  analo- 
gies, probably  to  the  extent  of  proving  them  branches 
of  the  same  family  tree. 

In  the  roughest  part  of  the  Eastern  Cordillera, 
about  the  head-waters  of  the  two  rivers  Fragua, 
(between  i°  and  2°  north  latitude),  live  \\ieAndaquis. 
They  are  wild  and  warlike,  and  are  the  alleged 
guardians  of  the  legendary  Indeguau,  "  House  of  the 
Sun,"  a  cavern  in  which,  according  to  local  tradition, 
lies  piled  the  untold  gold  of  the  ancient  peoples.* 
At  the  time  of  the  conquest  their  ancestors  are  said 
to  have  occupied  the  fertile  lands  between  the  Mag- 
dalena  and  Suaza  rivers,  especially  the  valley  of  San 
Augustin,  where  they  constructed  mysterious  cyclo- 
pean  edifices  and  subterranean  temples,  and  carved 
colossal  statues  from  the  living  rock.  These  have  been 
described  and  portrayed  by  intelligent  travelers,  and 
give  us  a  high  opinion  of  the  skill  and  intelligence  of 
their  builders.f 

The  only  specimen   I  have  found  of  the  Andaqui 

*  Manuel  I.  Albis,  in  Bulletin  of  the  Amer.  Ethnol.  Soc.t  vol.  I., 
P- 52. 

t  A.  Codazzi  in  Felipe  Perez,  Jeografia  del  Estado  de  Tolima, 
pp.  81  sqq.  (Bogota,  1863.) 


200  THE    AMERICAN    RACE. 

language  is  the  vocabulary  collected  by  the  Presbyter 
Albis.  Its  words  show  slight  similarities  to  the 
Paniquita  and  the  Chibcha,*  but  apparently  it  is  at 
bottom  an  independent  stock.  The  nation  was 
divided  into  many  sub-tribes,  living  in  and  along  the 
eastern  Cordillera,  and  on  the  banks  of  the  rivers 
Orteguasa,  Bodoquera,  Pescado,  Fragua  and  San 
Pedro,  all  tributaries  of  the  Caqueta. 

The  home  of  the  Mocoas  is  between  i°  and  2° 
north  lat.  along  the  Rio  de  los  Engafios  or  Yari, 
(whence  they  are  sometimes  called  Engafios  or  In- 
ganos),  and  other  tributaries  of  the  Caqueta.f  They 
are  partially  civilized,  and  have  seven  or  more  vil- 
lages near  the  town  of  Mocoa.  They  are  the  first 
natives  encountered  in  descending  the  eastern  slope 
of  the  Cordillera.  Unfortunately,  we  have  a  very 
imperfect  knowledge  of  their  language,  a  few  words 
reported  by  the  Presbyter  Albis  being  •  all  I  have 
seen.  So  many  of  them  are  borrowed  from  the  Ke- 
chua,  that  I  have  no  means  of  deciding  whether  the 
following  list  of  the  stock  is  correct  or  not : 

MOCOA  LINGUISTIC  STOCK. 

Almaguerenos.  Pastuzos. 

Enganos  or  Inganos.  Patias  (?) 

Mesayas,  Sebondoyes. 
Mocoas. 

*  As  tooth,  Andaqui,  sicoga  ;  Chibcha,   sica. 
house,         "         co-joe ;        "          jue. 

t  Manuel  P.  Albis,  in  Bull,  of  the  Amer.  Ethnolog.  Soc.,  Vol.  I., 
PP-  55.  sq-  See  also  General  T.  C.  de  Mosquera,  Memoir  on  the 
Physical  and  Political  Geography  of  New  Granada,  p.  41  (New 
York,  1853). 


THE   CAftARIS.  2OI 

Of  these,  the  Patias  dwelt  on  the  lofty  and  sterile 
plain  between  the  two  chains  of  the  Cordilleras  in 
Popayan.  The  Sebondoyes  had  a  village  on  the 
Putumayo,  five  leagues  south  of  the  Lake  of  Mocoa 
(Coleti). 

The  region  around  the  Gulf  of  Guayaquil  was  con- 
quered by  the  Inca  Tupac  Yupanqui  about  1450.* 
The  accounts  say  that  it  had  previously  been  occupied 
by  some  five-and-twenty  independent  tribes,  all  of 
whom  were  brought  under  the  dominion  of  the  Ke- 
chuas  and  adopted  their  language.  The  most  prom- 
inent of  these  were  the  Canaris,  whose  homes  were  in 
the  hot  valleys  near  the  coast.  Before  the  arrival  of 
the  Incas  they  had  a  certain  degree  of  cultivation, 
being  skilled  in  the  moulding  of  copper,  which  they 
worked  with  a  different  technique  from  the  Kechuas. 
Many  of  their  copper  axes  are  ornamented  with 
strange  figures,  perhaps  totemic,  cut  into  the  metal. 
As  much  as  five  or  six  hundred  pounds'  weight  of 
these  axes  has  been  taken  from  one  of  their  tombs. f 
Some  of  the  most  beautiful  gold  work  from  the  Peru- 
vian territory  has  been  found  in  modern  times  in  this 
province,  but  was  perhaps  the  work  of  Kechua  rather 
than  of  Cafiari  artists.:}; 

The  original  language  of  the  Cafiaris,  if  it  was  other 
than  the  Kechua,  appears  to  have  been  lost. 

*Garcilasso  de  la  Vega,  Commentaries  Reales,  Lib.  VIII.,  cap. 
5.  He  calls  the  natives  Huancavillcas. 

fF.  G.  Saurez,  E studio  Hi storico  sobre  los  Canaris  (Quito,  1878). 
This  author  gives  cuts  of  these  axes,  and  their  inscribed  devices. 

|  For  a  description,  with  cuts,  see  M.  L.  Heuzey,  "  Le  Tr£sor  de 
Cuenca,"  in  La  Gazette  des  Beaux-Arts,  August,  1870. 


202  THE  AMERICAN  RACE. 

2.   THE  PERUVIAN  REGION. 

The  difficulty  of  a  linguistic  classification  of  the 
tribes  of  the  Peruvian  region  is  presented  in  very 
formidable  terms  by  the  old  writers.  Cieza  de  Leon 
said  of  this  portion  of  the  continent :  "  They  have 
such  a  variety  of  languages  that  there  is  almost  a 
new  language  at  every  league  in  all  parts  of  the 
country ;  "  *  and  Garcilasso  de  la  Vega  complains  of 
the  "  confusion  and  multitude  of  languages,"  which 
gave  the  Incas  so  much  trouble,  and  later  so  much 
impeded  the  labors  of  the  missionaries.!  An  author- 
ity is  quoted  by  Bollaert  to  the  effect  that  in  the 
vice-royalty  of  Quito  alone  there  were  more  than 
forty  distinct  tongues,  spoken  in  upwards  of  three 
hundred  different  dialects4 

Like  most  such  statements,  these  are  gross  ex- 
aggerations. In  fact,  from  all  the  evidence  which  I 
have  been  able  to  find,  the  tribes  in  the  inter-Andean 
valley,  and  on  the  coast,  all  the  way  from  Quito, 
under  the  equator,  to  the  desert  of  Atacama  in  25° 
south  latitude,  belonged  to  probably  four  or  at  most 
five  linguistic  stocks.  These  are  the  Kechua,  the 
Aymara,  the  Puquina,  the  Yunca,  and  the  Ataca- 
mefio.  Of  these,  the  first  three  were  known  in  the 
early  days  of  the  conquest,  as  "  the  three  general 
languages  " — lenguas  generates — of  Peru,  on  account 
of  their  wide  distribution.  But  it  is  quite  likely,  as 

*  Cronica  del  Peru,  Pt.  I.,  cap.  cxvi. 
\  Comentarios  Reales  de  los  Incas ',  Lib.  VII.,  cap.  3. 
J  Antiquarian,  Ethnological  and  other  Researches,  in  New  Gra- 
nada, Ecuador,  Peru  and  Chili,  p.  101  (London,  1860). 


THE   PERUVIANS?  203 

I  shall  show  later,  that  the  Aymara  was  a  dialect,  and 
not  an  independent  stock. 

i.     The  Kechuas. 

The  Kechua  in  its  various  dialects,  was  spoken  by 
an  unbroken  chain  of  tribes  for  nearly  two  thousand 
miles  from  north  to  south  ;  that  is,  from  3°  north  of 
the  equator  to  32°  south  latitude.  Its  influence  can 
be  traced  over  a  far  wider  area.  In  the  dialects  of 
Popayan  in  Ecuador,  in  those  on  the  Rio  Putumayo 
and  Rio  Napo,  in  those  on  the  Ucayali  and  still 
further  east,  on  the  banks  of  the  Beni  and  Mamore,  in 
the  Moxa  of  the  Bolivian  highlands,  and  southeast 
quite  to  the  languages  of  the  Pampas,  do  we  find 
numerous  words  clearly  borrowed  from  this  wide- 
spread stock. 

This  dissemination  was  due  much  more  to  culture 
than  to  conquest.  It  was  a  tribute  to  the  intellectual 
superiority,  the  higher  civilization,  of  this  remark- 
able people,  as  is  evident  by  the  character  of  the 
words  borrowed.  It  is  a  historic  error  to  suppose 
that  the  extension  of  the  Kechua  was  the  result  of 
the  victories  of  the  Incas.  These  occurred  but  a  few 
centuries  before  the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards,  and 
their  influence  was  not  great  on  the  native  tongues,  as 
even  the  panegyrist  of  the  Incas,  Garcilasso  de  la 
Vega,  confesses.*  The  opinion  of  Von  Tschudi  was 
so  positive  on  this  point  that  he  says :  "  With  a  few 
unimportant  exceptions,  wherever  the  Kechua  was 

*  He  complains  that  the  languages  which  the  Incas  tried  to  sup- 
press, had,  since  their  downfall,  arisen  as  vigorous  as  ever, 
Comentarios  Reales  de  los  Incas,  Lib.  VII.,  cap.  3. 


204  THE  AMERICAN   RACE. 

spoken  at  the  time  of  the  conquest,  it  had  been 
spoken  thousands  of  years  before  the  Inca  dynasty 
began."  *  The  assertion  of  Garcilasso  de  la  Vega, 
that  the  Inca  gens  had  a  language  of  its  own,  has 
been  shown  to  be  an  error,  f 

Where  should  we  look  for  the  starting-point,  the 
"  cradle,"  of  the  far-spread  Kechua  stock  ?  The  tra- 
ditions of  the  Incas  pointed  to  the  shores  and  islands 
of  Lake  Titicaca  as  the  birthplace  of  their  remotest 
ancestors ;  but  as  Markham  has  abundantly  shown, 
this  was  a  pure  myth.  He  himself  is  decidedly  of  the 
opinion  that  we  must  search  for  the  cradle  of  the  stock 
in  the  district  of  Cuzco,  perhaps  not  far  from  Paucar- 
tambo,  "  The  House  of  the  Dawning,"  to  which  other 
venerable  Incarian  legends  assigned  the  scene  of  the 
creation  of  their  common  ancestors.  ^ 

But  there  are  many  reasons,  and  to  me  satisfactory 
ones,  for  believing  that  the  first  Kechuas  appeared  in 
South  America  at  the  extreme  north  of  the  region 
they  later  occupied,  and  that  the  course  of  their 
migration  was  constantly  from  north  to  south.  This 
was  also  the  opinion  of  the  learned  Von  Tschudi. 
He  traces  the  early  wandering  of  the  Kechua  tribes 
from  the  vicinity  of  Quito  to  the  district  between  the 
Andes  and  the  upper  Marafton,  thence  in  the  direc- 

*  Organismus  der  Khetsua  Sprache,  s.  64  (Leipzig,  1884). 

t  See  von  Tschudi,  Organismus  der  Khetsua  Sprache,  s.  65. 
It  is  to  be  regretted  that  in  the  face  of  the  conclusive  proof  to  the 
contrary,  Dr.  Middendorf  repeats  as  correct  the  statement  of  Gar- 
cilasso de  la  Vega  (Ollanta,  Einleitung,  s.  15,  note). 

t  See  his  Introduction  to  the  Travels  of  Pedro  Cieza  de  Leon,  p. 
Xxii.  (London,  1864). 


PERUVIAN    MIGRATIONS.  2O5 

tion  of  Huaraz,  and  so  gradually  southward,  follow- 
ing the  inter-Andean  plateau,  to  the  northen  shore 
of  Lake  Titicaca.  There  they  encountered  warlike 
tribes  who  put  a  stop  to  their  further  progress  in  that 
direction  until  the  rise  of  the  Inca  dynasty,  who 
pushed  their  conquests  toward  the  south  and  west. 

The  grounds  for  this  opinion  are  largely  linguistic.* 
In  his  exhaustive  analysis  of  the  Kechua  language, 
Von  Tschudi  found  its  most  archaic  forms  in  the  ex- 
treme north,  in  the  dialects  of  Quito  and  Chinchasuyu. 
This  is  also  my  own  impression  from  the  comparison 
of  the  northern  and  southern  dialects.  For  instance, 
in  the  Chinchaya  (northern),  the  word  for  water  is 
yacu,  while  the  southern  dialects  employ  yacu  in  the 
sense  of  "  flowing  water,"  or  river,  and  for  water  in 
general  adopted  the  word  unu,  apparently  from  the 
Arawak  stock.  Now,  as  Karl  von  den  Steinen  argues 
in  a  similar  instance,  we  can  understand  how  a  river 
could  be  called  "  water,"  but  not  how  drinking  water 
could  be  called  "  river ; "  and  therefore  we  must  as- 
sume that  the  original  sense  of  yacu  was  simply 
"  water,"  and  that  the  tribes  who  retained  this 
meaning  had  the  more  archaic  vocabulary.f 

*  See  his  Organismus  der  Khetsua  Sprache,  ss.  64-66. 

t  The  Chinchaya  dialect  is  preserved  (insufficiently)  by  Father 
Juan  de  Figueredo  in  an  Appendix  to  Torres-Rubio,  Arle  de  la 
Lengua  Quichua,  edition  of  Lima,  1701.  It  retained  the  sounds 
of  g  and  /,  not  known  in  southern  Kechua.  The  differences  in  the 
vocabularies  of  the  two  are  apparent  rather  than  real.  Thus  the 
Chin,  rupay,  sun,  is  the  K.  for  sun's  heat  (ardor  del  sol);  Chin. 
caclla,  face,  is  K.  eacclla,  cheeks.  Markham  is  decidedly  in  error 
in  saying  that  the  Chinchaya  dialect  "  differed  very  considerably 
from  that  of  the  Incas  "  (Journal  Royal  Geog.  Soc.,  1871,  p.  316). 


206  THE   AMERICAN     RACE. 

Mr.  Markham  indeed  says :  "  In  my  opinion  there 
is  no  sufficient  evidence  that  the  people  of  Quito  did 
speak  Quichua  previous  to  the  Inca  conquest ; "  and 
he  quotes  Cieza  de  Leon  to  the  effect  that  at  the  time 
of  the  Spanish  conquest  they  had  a  tongue  of  their 
own.*  I  have,  however,  shown  how  untrustworthy 
Cieza  de  Leon's  statements  are  on  such  subjects ; 
and  what  is  conclusive,  there  were  Kechua-speaking 
tribes  living  at  the  north  who  never  were  subjugated 
by  the  Incas.  Such  for  instance  were  the  Malabas, 
whom  Stevenson,  when  visiting  that  region  in  1815, 
found  living  in  a  wild  state  on  San  Miguel  river,  a 
branch  of  the  Esmeraldas.f  This  is  also  true,  ac- 
cording to  the  observations  of  Stiibel,  of  the  natives 
of  Tucas  de  Santiago  in  the  province  of  Pasto  in 
Ecuador.^ 

This  opinion  is  further  supported  by  a  strong  con- 
sensus of  ancient  tradition,  which,  in  spite  of  its 
vagueness,  certainly  carries  some  weight.  Many  of 
the  southern  Kechua  tribes  referred  for  their  origin 
to  the  extreme  northwest  as  known  to  them,  to  the 
ancient  city  of  Lambayeque  on  the  Pacific  coast,  a 
locality  which,  according  to  Bastian,  §  held  a  place  in 
their  traditions  equivalent  to  that  of  Culiacan,  "  the 
Home  of  the  Ancestors,"  in  the  legendary  lore  of  the 
Aztecs. 

*  Introduction  to  his  translation  of  Cieza  de  Leon,  p.  xlvii,  note. 

f  Bollaert,  Antiquarian  and  Ethnological  Researches,  p.  81. 

J  Von  Tschudi,  Organismtis  der  Khetsua  Sprache,  s.  66.  Hervas 
was  also  of  the  opinion  that  both  Quitu  and  Scyra  were  Kechua 
dialects  (Catalogo  de  las  Lenguas  Conocidas,  Tom.  I.,  p.  276). 

\  A.  Bastian,  Die  Culturldnder  des  Alten  Americas,  Bd.  II.,  s.  93. 


LEGENDS   OF   THE    QUITUS.  2O/ 

The  legends  of  the  ancient  Quitus  have   been    pre- 
served in  the  work  of  Juan  de  Velasco,  and  although 
they  are  dismissed  with  small  respect  by  Markham,  I 
am  myself  of  the  opinion  that  there  is  both  external 
and  internal  evidence  to  justify  us  in  accepting  them 
as  at  least  genuine  native  productions.     They  relate 
that  at  a  remote  epoch  two  Kechua-speaking  tribes, 
the  Mantas  on  the  south,  and  the  Caras  on  the  north, 
occupied  the  coast  from  the  Gulf  of  Guayaquil  to  the 
Esmeraldas  River.     The  Caras  were  the  elder,  and  its 
ancestors  had  reached  that  part  of  the  coast  in  rafts 
and    canoes   from    some    more    northern    home.     For 
many  generations  they  remained  a  maritime  people, 
but   at   length    followed    up    the    Esmeraldas  and  its 
affluents    until    they   reached    the   vicinity    of  Quito, 
where  they  developed  into  a  powerful  nation    under 
the    rule    of    their  scyri,    or   chiefs.     Of    these    they 
claimed  a  dynasty  of  nineteen  previous  to  the   con- 
quest of  their  territory  by  the  Inca  Huayna  Capac. 
They   inherited    in   the   male   line,    and    were   mono- 
gamous  to  the   extent  that  the  issue  of  only  one  of 
their  wives  could  be  regarded  as  legal  heirs.*     They 
did  not  bury  their  dead,  as  did  the  southern  Kechuas, 
but  placed  them   on  the  surface  of  the  soil  and  con- 
structed a  stone  mound  or  tomb,  called  tola,  over  the 
remains,  resembling  in  this  the  Aymaras. 

The  extent  of  the  Kechua  tongue  to  the  north  has 

*  Juan  de  Velasco,  Histoiredu  Royaume  de  Quito,  pp.  n-2i,sq. 
(Ed.  Ternaux-Compans,  Paris,  1840.)  But  Cieza  de  Leon's  ex- 
pressions imply  the  existence  of  the  matriarchal  system  among 
them.  See  Markham's  translation,  p.  83,  note.  Some  claim  that 
the  Quitus  were  a  different,  and,  in  their  locality,  a  more  ancient 
tribe  than  the  Caras. 


208  THE  AMERICAN     RACE. 

not  been  accurately  defined.  Under  the  name  Yum- 
bos,  or  Yumbos  de  Guerra,  the  old  Relations  included 
various  tribes  in  the  Quito  region  who  had  not  been 
reduced  by  the  Spanish  Conquistadores.*  A  recent 
traveler,  M.  Andr£,  states  that  the  Yumbos  belong  to 
the  family  of  the  Quitus,  and  include  the  tribes  of 
the  Cayapas,  Colorados  and  Mangaches.f  Of  these, 
the  Cayapas  and  Colorados,  as  I  have  shown,  belong 
to  the  Barbacoa  stock,  though  the  term  Colorados 
"  painted,"  is  applied  to  so  many  tribes  that  it  is  not 
clear  which  is  meant.  The  geographer  Villavicencio 
observes  that  "  the  Napos,  Canelos,  Intags,  Nane- 
gales  and  Gualeas,  collectively  called  Yumbos,  all 
speak  dialects  of  the  Kechua."  The  modern  Canelos 
he  describes  as  a  cross  between  the  ancient  Yumbos 
and  the  Jivaros,  to  whom  they  are  now  neighbors, 
while  the  modern  Quitos  adjoin  the  Zaparos.  Their 
language,  however,  he  asserts,  has  retained  its  purity.;}: 
Whether  we  should  include  in  this  stock  the  Ma- 
cas,  who  dwell  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Andes  a 
few  degrees  south  of  the  equator,  is  not  clear,  as  I 
have  found  no  vocabularies.  Velasco  refers  to  them 

*  Relaciones  Geograficas  delndias.  Peru.  Tom.  I.,  p.  19.  (Ma- 
drid, 1881.) 

t  In  Le  Tour  du  Monde,  1883,  p.  406.  The  word  Yumbo  appears 
to  be  derived  from  the  Paez  yombo,  river,  and  was  applied  to  the 
down-stream  Indians. 

|  "  Casi  tal  come  lo  ensenaronlos  conquistadores. "  Manuel  Vil- 
lavicencio, Geografia  de  la  Republica  del  Ecuador,  pp.  168,  354, 
413,  etc.  (New  York,  1858. )  According  to  Dr.  Middendorf,  the 
limit  of  the  Incarial  power  (which,  however,  is  not  identical  in  this 
region  with  that  of  the  Kechua  tongue),  was  the  Blue  river,  the  Rio 
Ancasmayu,  an  affluent  of  the  upper  Patia.  (Ollanta,  Einleitung, 
s.  5.  Berlin,  1890.) 


LIMITS   OF  THE  KECHUAS.  209 

as  a  part  of  the  Scyra  stock,  and  they  are  in  the 
Kechua  region.  Mr.  Buckley,  who  visited  them  a 
few  years  ago,  describes  them  as  divided  into  small 
tribes,  constantly  at  war  with  each  other.  Their 
weapons  are  spears  and  blow-pipes  with  poisoned 
arrows.  Hunting  is  their  principal  business,  but  they 
also  raise  some  maize,  yucca  and  tobacco.  Polygamy 
prevails  along  with  the  patriarchal  system,  the  son 
inheriting  the  property  of  his  father.  Some  rude  pot- 
tery is  manufactured,  and  their  huts  of  palm  leaves  are 
neatly  constructed.  Like  the  Jivaros,  they  prepare 
the  heads  of  the  dead,  and  sometimes  a  man  will  kill 
one  of  his  wives  if  he  takes  a  fancy  that  her  head 
would  look  particularly  ornamental  thus  preserved.* 

The  southern  limit  of  the  Kechua  tongue,  before 
the  Spanish  conquest,  has  been  variously  put  by 
different  writers ;  but  I  think  we  can  safely  adopt 
Coquimbo,  in  south  latitude  30°,  as  practically  the 
boundary  of  the  stock.  We  are  informed  that  in 
1593  the  priests  addressed  their  congregations  in 
Kechua  at  this  place,  f  and  in  the  same  generation 
the  missionary  Valdiva  names  it  as  the  northern 
limit  of  the  Araucanian4  Doubtless,  however,  it 
was  spoken  by  outlying  colonies  as  far  south  as  the 
river  Maule,  in  south  latitude  35°,  which  other 
writers  assign  as  the  limit  of  the  conquests  of  the 
Incas. 


*  Mr.  C.  Buckley,  "  Notes  on  the  Macas  Indians  of  Ecuador,"  in 
Journal  of  the  Anthropological  Institute,  1874,  pp.  29,  sqq. 

t  References  in  Waitz,  Anthropologie  der  Naturvolker,  Bd.  III., 
s.  492. 

\  Artedela  Lcngua  C/iilena,  Introd.    (Lima,  1606). 
14 


2IO  THE  AMERICAN   RACE. 

Cieza  de  Leon  and  other  early  Spanish  writers 
frequently  refer  to  the  general  physical  sameness  of 
the  Peruvian  tribes.  They  found  all  of  them  some- 
what undersized,  brown  in  color,  beardless,  and  of 
but  moderate  muscular  force. 

The  craniology  of  Peru  offers  peculiar  difficulties. 
It  was  the  policy  of  the  rulers  to  remove  large  numbers 
of  conquered  tribes  to  distant  portions  of  the  realm  in 
order  to  render  the  population  more  homogeneous. 
This  led  to  a  constant  blending  of  physical  traits. 
Furthermore,  nowhere  on  the  continent  do  we  find 
skulls  presenting  more  grotesque  artificial  deformities, 
which  render  it  difficult  to  decide  upon  their  normal 
form.  When  the  latter  element  is  carefully  excluded, 
we  still  find  a  conflicting  diversity  in  the  results  of 
measurements.  Of  245  Peruvian  crania  in  the  col- 
lection of  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,  Philadel- 
phia, 168  are  brachycephalic,  50  are  dolichocephalic, 
and  27  mesocephalic.  Of  13  from  near  Arica,  all  but 
one  are  dolichocephalic.  Of  104  from  Pachacamac, 
93  are  brachycephalic  and  none  dolichocephalic.  It 
is  evident  that  along  the  coast  there  lived  tribes  of 
contrasted  skull  forms.  From  the  material  at  hand  I 
should  say  that  the  dividing  line  was  near  Pisco, 
those  south  of  that  point  having  elongated,  those 
north  of  it  rounded  heads.  The  true  Kechuas  and 
Aymaras  are  meso  or  brachycephalic.  The  crania 
from  the  celebrated  cemetery  of  Ancon,  which  is 
situated  on  the  coast  near  Lima,  are  mostly  de 
formed,  but  when  obtained  in  natural  form  prove 
the  population  to  have  been  mesocephalic,  with 
rounded  orbits  (megasemes)  and  narrow  prominent 


GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  INCAS.        211 

noses  (leptorhines).  An  average  of  six  specimens 
yielded  a  cubical  capacity  of  1335  cub.  cent.* 

The  cubical  capacity  of  the  Peruvian  skulls  from 
the  coast  generally  averages  remarkably  low — lower 
than  that  of  the  Bushmen  or  Hottentots.  Careful 
measurements  give  the  capacity  at  1230  cubic  centi- 
meters, f  They  almost  reach  the  borders  of  micro- 
cephaly, which  Broca  placed  at  1150  cubic  centi- 
meters. 

Although  the  Spanish  writers  speak  of  the  Inca  as 
an  autocratic  despot,  a  careful  anyalysis  of  the  social 
organization  of  ancient  Peru  places  it  in  the  light  of 
a  government  by  a  council  of  the  gentes,  quite  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  system  so  familiar  elsewhere  on  the 
continent.  The  Inca  was  a  war-chief,  elected  by  the 
council  as  an  executive  officer  to  carry  out  its  deci- 
sion, and  had  practically  no  initiative  of  his  own. 
Associated  with  him,  and  nearly  equal  in  power,  was 
the  huillac  liuma,  or  "  speaking  head,"  who  acted  as 
president  of  the  tribal  council,  and  was  the  executive 
officer  in  the  Inca's  absence.  The  totemic  system 
still  controlled  the  social  life  of  the  people,  although 
it  is  evident  that  the  idea  of  the  family  had  begun  to 
assert  itself.  The  land  continued  to  be  owned  by  the 
gens  or  ayllu,  and  not  by  individuals.^: 


*  Paul  Topinard,  in  Revue  d'Anthropologie,  Tome  IV.,  pp.  65-67. 

f  Lucien  Carr,  Fourth  Report  of  the  Peabody  Museum  of  Archce- 
ology. 

t  I  would  especially  refer  to  the  admirable  analysis  of  the  Peru- 
vian governmental  system  by  Dr.  Gustav  Briihl,  Die  Culturvolker 
Alt-Amerikas,  p.  335,  sqq.  (Cincinnati,  1887.)  I  regret  that  the 
learned  Kechuist,  Dr.  E.  W.  Middendorf ,  had  not  studied  this  book 


212  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

Agriculture  had  reached  its  highest  level  in  Peru 
among  the  native  tribes.  The  soil  was  artificially 
enriched  with  manure  and  guano  brought  from  the 
islands ;  extensive  systems  of  irrigation  were  carried 
out,  aJnd  implements  of  bronze,  as  spades  and  hoes, 
took  the  place  of  the  ruder  tools  of  stone  or  wood. 
The  crops  were  maize,  potatoes  both  white  and 
sweet,  yucca,  peppers,  tobacco  and  cotton.  Of  domes- 
tic animals  the  llama  and  paco  were  bred  for  their 
hair,  for  sacrifices  and  as  beasts  of  burden,  but  not  for 
draft,  for  riding  nor  for  milking.*  The  herds  often 
numbered  many  thousands.  The  Inca  dog  was  a  de- 
scendant of  the  wolf,f  and  monkeys,  birds  and  guinea 
pigs  were  common  pets. 

Cotton  and  hair  of  the  various  species  of  the  llama 
were  spun  and  woven  into  a  large  variety  of  fabrics, 
often  ornamented  with  geometric  designs  in  color. 
The  pottery  was  exceedingly  varied  in  forms.  Nat- 
ural objects  were  imitated  in  clay  with  fidelity  and 
expression,  and  when  a  desirable  model  was  not  at 
hand,  the  potter  was  an  adept  in  moulding  curious 
trick-jars  that  would  not  empty  their  contents  in  the 
expected  direction,  or  would  emit  a  strange  note  from 
the  gurgling  fluid,  or  such  as  could  be  used  as 
whistles,  or  he  could  turn  out  terra-cotta  flutes  and 

before  he  prepared  his  edition  of  the  Ollanta  drama  (Berlin,  1890), 
or  he  would  have  modified  many  of  the  statements  in  its  Einlcit- 
ung. 

*See  J.  J.  von  Tschudi,  "  Das  Lama,"  in  Zeitschrift  fur  Eth- 
nologie,  1885,  s.  93. 

f  Dr.  Nehring  has  shown  that  all  the  breeds  of  Peruvian  dogs 
can  be  traced  back  to  what  is  known  as  the  Inca  shepherd  dog. 
Zeitschrift  fur  Ethnologic  t  1885,  s.  520. 


PERUVIAN    CULTURE.  213 

the  like.  Not  less  adroit  were  the  artists  in  metal, 
especially  in  bronze  and  in  gold  and  silver.  The 
early  writers  are  filled  with  expressions  of  astonish- 
ment at  the  amount,  variety  and  beauty  of  the 
Incarian  gold  work.  Its  amount  we  may  well  credit 
when  we  are  told  that  the  value  of  the  precious 
metals  shipped  to  Spain  within  twenty-five  years 
after  the  conquest  was  four  hundred  million  ducats  of 
gold.  There  are  specimens  enough  remaining  to  judge 
of  its  artistic  designs.  They  are  quite  ingenious  and 
show  dexterous  manipulation,  but  rarely  hint  at  a 
sense  of  the  beautiful. 

Peruvian  architecture  was  peculiar  and  imposing. 
It  showed  no  trace  of  an  inspiration  from  Yucatan  or 
Mexico.  Its  special  features  were  cyclopean  walls  of 
huge  stones  fitted  together  without  mortar  ;  structures 
of  several  stories  in  height,  not  erected  upon  tumuli 
or  pyramids  ;  the  doors  narrowing  in  breadth  toward 
the  top ;  the  absence  of  pillars  or  arches ;  the  avoid- 
ance of  exterior  and  mural  decoration  ;  the  artistic 
disposition  of  niches  in  the  walls  ;  and  the  extreme 
solidity  of  the  foundations.  These  points  show  that 
Inca  architecture  was  not  derived  from  that  north  of 
the  isthmus  of  Panama.  In  the  decorative  effects  of 
the  art  they  were  deficient ;  neither  their  sculpture  in 
stone  nor  their  mural  paintings  at  all  equalled  those 
of  Yucatan. 

The  only  plan  they  had  devised  to  record  or  to  re- 
call ideas  was  by  means  of  knotted  strings  of  various 
colors  and  sizes,  called  quipus.  These  could  have 
been  nothing  more  than  mere  mnemonic  aids,  highly 
artificial  and  limited  in  their  application. 


214  THE   AMERICAN    RACE. 

The  official  religion  was  a  worship  of  the  sun  ;  but 
along  with  it  were  carried  the  myths  of  Viracocha,  the 
national  hero-god,  whom  it  is  not  difficult  to  identify 
with  the  personifications  of  light  so  common  in 
American  religions.  The  ceremonies  of  the  cult 
were  elaborate,  and  were  not  associated  with  the 
bloody  sacrifices  frequent  in  Yucatan  and  Mexico. 
Their  mythology  was  rich,  and  many  legends  were 
current  of  the  white  and  bearded  Viracocha,  the  cul- 
ture hero,  who  gave  them  their  civilization,  and  of 
his  emergence  from  the  "  house  of  the  dawn."  Ac- 
cording to  some  authorities  which  appear  to  be  trust- 
worthy, the  more  intelligent  of  the  Kechuas  appear 
to  have  risen  above  object-worship,  and  to  have 
advocated  the  belief  in  a  single  and  incorporeal 
divinity. 

A  variety  of  ancestral  worship  also  prevailed,  that 
of  the  pacarina,  or  forefather  of  the  ayllu  or  gens, 
idealized  as  the  soul  or  essence  of  his  descendants. 
The  emblem  worshipped  was  the  actual  body,  called 
walqui,  which  was  mummied  and  preserved  with 
reverential  care  in  sacred  underground  temples. 

The  morality  of  the  Peruvians  stood  low.  Their 
art  relics  abound  in  obscene  devices  and  the  portrait- 
ure of  unnatural  passions.  We  can  scarcely  err  in 
seeing  in  them  a  nation  which  had  been  deteriorated 
by  a  long  indulgence  in  debasing  tastes. 

The  Kechua  language  is  one  of  harsh  phonetics, 
especially  in  the  southern  dialects,  but  of  consider- 
able linguistic  development.  The  modifications  of 
the  theme  are  by  means  of  suffixes,  which  are  so 
numerous  as  to  give  it  a  flexibility  and  power  of  con- 


KECHUA    LITERATURE.  21$ 

veying  slight  shades  of  meaning  rare  in  American 
tongues,  and  which  Friederich  Mtiller  compares  to 
that  of  the  Osmanli  Turks.*  Its  literature  was  by  no 
means  despicable.  In  spite  of  the  absence  of  a 
method  of  writing,  there  was  a  large  body  of  songs, 
legends  and  dramas  preserved  by  oral  communication 
and  the  quipus.  A  number  of  these  have  been  pub- 
lished. Among  them  the  drama  of  Ollanta  is  the 
most  noteworthy.  It  appears  to  be  a  genuine  abo- 
riginal production,  committed  to  writing  soon  after 
the  conquest,  and  bears  the  marks  of  an  appreciation 
of  literary  form  higher  than  we  might  have  ex- 
pected.f  The  poems  or  yaraveys,  usually  turn  on 
love  for  a  theme,  and  often  contain  sentiments  of 
force  and  delicacy.^  Several  excellent  grammatical 
studies  of  the  Kechua  have  appeared  in  recent  years.§ 

KECHUA    LINGUISTIC  STOCK. 

Ayahucas,  south  of  Quitu. 

Canas,  east  of  the  Vilcaneta  Pass. 

Caras,  on  the  coast  from  Charapoto  to  Cape  San  Francisco. 

Casamarcas,  on  the  head-waters  of  the  Maranon. 

Chachapuyas,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Maranon. 

*Grundriss  der  Sprachwissenschaft,  Bd.  II.,  Abth.  I.,  370. 

t  A  careful  edition  is  that  of  G.  Pacheco  Zegarra,  Ollantai ; 
Drame  en  Vers  Quechuas  du  temps  des  Incas  (Paris,  1878);  an 
English  translation,  quite  faulty,  was  given  by  C.  G.  Markham 
(London,  1871);  one  in  Kechua  and  German  by  Von  Tschudi,  and 
recently  (1890)  Dr.  Middendorf's  edition  claims  greater  accuracy 

than  its  predecessors. 

•s.  •  •**•'• 

$  Espada,  Yaravies  Quitenos.     (Madrid,  1881.) 

$  J.  J.  Von  Tschudi,  Organismus  der  Khetsua  Sprache  (Leipzig, 
1884) ;  Dr.  E.  W.  Middendorf,  Das  Runa  Simi,  oder  die  Keshua 
Sprache.  (Leipzig,  1890.) 


2l6  THE  AMERICAN    RACE. 

Chancas,  near  Huanta,  in  department  Ayacucho. 

Chichasttyus,  in  the  inter-Andean  valley,  from  I^oxa  to  Cerro  de 

Pasco. 

Conchucus,  near  Huaraz. 

Huacrachucus,  on  both  banks  of  the  gorge  of  the  Maranon. 
HuamachucuS)  on  the  upper  Maranon. 
Huancapampas,  near  Juan  de  Bracamoros. 
Huancas,  in  the  valley  of  Sausa. 
Huancavillcas,  on  and  near  the  river  Guayaquil. 
ffuanucus,  near  Tiahuanuco. 
Incas,  between  Rio  Apurimac  and  Paucartampu. 
Iquichanos,  near  Huanta. 
Kechuas,  from  Lake  Apurimac  to  the  Pampas. 
Lamanos  or  Lamistas,  about  Truxillo. 
Malabas,  on  Rio  San  Miguel  (a  branch  of  the  Esmeraldas). 
Manias,  on  the  coast  north  of  the  Gulf  of  Guayaquil. 
Morochucos,  in  the  department  of  Ayacucho. 
Omapachas,  adjacent  to  the  Rucanas. 
Quitus,  near  Quito. 

Rucanas,  near  the  coast,  about  lat.  15°. 
Yauyos>  near  Canete.* 

2.   The  Aymaras. 

I  have  thought  it  best  to  treat  of  the  Aymara  as  a 
distinct  linguistic  stock,  although  the  evidence  is 
steadily  accumulating  that  it  is,  if  not  merely  a 
dialect  of  the  Kechua,  then  a  jargon  made  up  of  the 
Kechua  and  other  stocks.  In  the  first  place,  the 
name  "Aymara"  appears  to  have  been  a  misnomer, 
or,  as  Markham  strongly  puts  it,  a  "  deplorable  blun- 
der," of  the  Jesuit  missionaries  stationed  at  Juli.f 
The  true  Aymaras  were  an  unimportant  ayllu  or  gens 

*  The  Yauyos  spoke  the  Cauqui  dialect,  which  was  somewhat 
akin  to  Aymara. 

t  See  Markham's  paper  in  Journal  of  the  Royal  Geogra  phical 
Society,  1871,  p.  309. 


THE  AYMARA  LANGUAGE. 

of  the  Kechuas,  and  lived  in  the  valley  of  the 
Abancay,  hundreds  of  miles  from  Juli.  A  number  of 
them  had  been  transported  to  Juli  to  work  in  the 
mines,  and  there  had  intermarried  with  women  of 
the  Colla  and  Lupaca  tribes,  native  to  that  locality. 
The  corrupt  dialect  of  the  children  of  these  Aymara 
colonists  was  that  to  which  the  Jesuit,  Ludovico  Ber- 
tonio,  gave  the  name  Aymara,  and  in  it,  Markham 
claims,  he  wrote  his  grammar  and  dictionary.* 

Its  grammar  and  phonetics  are  closely  analogous  to 
those  of  the  southern  Kechua  dialects,  and  about  one- 
fourth  of  its  vocabulary  is  clearly  traceable  to  Kechua 
radicals.  Moreover,  the  Colla,  Lupaca,  Pacasa  and 
allied  dialects  of  that  region  are  considered  by  various 
authorities  as  derived  from  the  Kechua.  For  these 
reasons,  Markham,  Von  Tschudi,  and  later,  Professor 
Steinthal,  have  pronounced  in  favor  of  the  opinion 
that  the  so-called  Aymara  is  a  member  of  the  Kechua 
linguistic  stock.f 

On  the  other  hand,  the  decided  majority  of  its 
radicals  have  no  affinity  with  Kechua,  and  betray  a 
preponderating  influence  of  some  other  stock.  What 
this  may  have  been  must  be  left  for  future  investiga- 

*  Arte  de  la  Lengua  Aymara,  Roma,  1603  ;  Vocabulario  de  la 
Lengua  Aymara,  Juli,  1612.  Both  have  been  republished  by  Jul- 
ius Platzmann,  Leipzig,  1879. 

fSee  Steinthal,  "  Das  Verhaltniss  zwischen  dem  Ketschua  und 
Aimara,"  in  Compte-Rcndu  du  Congres  International  des  Anieri- 
canistes,  1888,  p.  462.  David  Forbes  reverses  the  ordinary  view, 
and  considers  the  Kechua  language  and  culture  as  mixed  and  late 
products  derived  from  an  older  Aymara  civilization.  See  his  article 
on  the  Aymara  Indians  in  Journal  of  the  Ethnological  Society  of 
London,  1870,  p.  270,  sqq. 


2l8  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

tion.  It  does  not  seem  to  have  been  the  Puquina ; 
for  although  that  tongue  borrowed  from  both  the 
Aymara  and  the  pure  Kechua  dialects,  its  numerals 
indicate  a  stock  radically  apart  from  either  of  them. 

The  Aymara  was  spoken  with  the  greatest  purity 
and  precision  by  the  Pacasas ;  and  next  to  these,  by 
the  Lupacas ;  and  it  was  especially  on  these  two 
dialects  that  Bertonio  founded  his  Grammar,  and  not 
upon  the  mongrel  dialect  of  the  imported  laborers,  as 
Markham  would  have  us  believe.* 

The  physical  traits  of  the  Aymara  Indians  offer 
some  pecularities.  These  consist  mainly  in  an  un- 
usual length  of  the  trunk  in  proportion  to  the  height, 
in  a  surprising  development  of  the  chest,  and  short 
extremities.  The  proportion  of  the  thigh  to  the  leg 
in  length  is  under  the  average.  The  leg  and  calf  are 
well  developed,  and  the  general  muscular  force  good. 
The  hands  and  feet  are  smaller  even  than  is  common 
in  the  American  race.  The  skull  has  a  tendency  to 
dolichocephaly.f  The  unusual  thoracic  development 
is  plainly  attributable  to  the  tenuity  of  the  atmosphere 
breathed  by  these  residents  of  heights  varying  from 
4,000  to  17,000  feet  above  sea  level.  Making  allow- 
ances for  the  results  of  this  exposure,  they  do  not 
differ  materially  from  the  general  physical  habits  of 
the  Kechuas. 

*  "  Principalmente  se  ensena  en  este  Arte  la  lengua  Lupaca,  la 
qual  no  es  inferior  a  la  Pacasa,  que  entre  todas  las  lenguas  Aymar- 
icas  tiene  el  primer  lugar."  Bertonio,  Arte  de  la  Lengua  Aymara, 
p.  10. 

t  For  measurements,  etc.,  see  David  Forbes,  in  Journal  of  the 
London  Ethnological  Society,  October,  1870. 


AY  MARA  CULTURE.  219 

The  location  they  occupied  was  generally  to  the 
south  and  east  of  the  Kechuas,  upon  the  plateau  and 
western  slopes  of  the  Andes,  from  south  latitude  15° 
to  20°,  and  through  about  six  degrees  of  longitude. 
It  may  be  said  roughly  to  have  been  three  hundred 
miles  from  north  to  south,  and  four  hundred  from 
east  to  west.  The  total  native  population  of  this  area 
to-day  is  about  six  hundred  thousand,  two-thirds  of 
whom  are  of  pure  blood,  and  the  remainder  mixed. 
Some  of  them  dwell  along  the  sea  coast,  but  the 
majority  are  on  the  Bolivian  plateau,  the  average  al- 
titude of  which  is  more  than  twelve  thousand  feet 
above  sea  level. 

The  old  writers  furnish  us  very  little  information 
about  the  Aymaras.  At  the  time  of  the  discovery 
they  were  subject  to  the  Kechuas  and  had  long  been 
thus  dependent.  Many,  however,  believe  that  they 
were  the  creators  or  inspirers  of  the  civilization  which 
the  Kechuas  extended  so  widely  over  the  western 
coast.  Certain  it  is  that  the  traditions  of  the  latter 
relate  that  their  first  king  and  the  founder  of  their 
higher  culture,  Manco  Capac,  journeyed  northward 
from  his  home  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Titicaca,  which 
was  situated  in  Aymara  territory.  From  the  white 
foam  of  this  inland  sea  rose  the  Kechua  culture-hero 
Viracocha,  who  brought  them  the  knowledge  of  use- 
ful arts  and  the  mysteries  of  their  cult. 

On  the  cold  plain,  higher  than  the  summit  of  the 
Jungfrau,  which  borders  this  elevated  sea  are  also 
found  the  enigmatical  ruins  of  Tiahuanaco,  much 
the  most  remarkable  of  any  in  America.  They  are 
the  remains  of  imposing  edifices  of  stone,  the  cycle- 


220  THE  AMERICAN   RACE. 

pean  blocks  polished  and  adjusted  so  nicely  one  to 
the  other  that  a  knife-blade  cannot  be  inserted  in  the 
joint.*  In  architectural  character  they  differ  widely 
from  the  remains  of  Incarian  structures.  The  walls 
are  decorated  with  bas-reliefs,  there  are  remains  of 
columns,  the  doors  have  parallel  and  not  sloping 
sides,  all  angles  are  right  angles,  and  large  statues  in 
basalt  were  part  of  the  ornamentation.  In  these  re- 
spects we  recognize  a  different  inspiration  from  that 
which  governed  the  architecture  of  the  Kechuas.f 

No  tradition  records  the  builders  of  these  strange 
structures.  No  one  occupied  them  at  the  time  of  the 
conquest.  When  first  heard  of,  they  were  lonely 
ruins  as  they  are  to-day,  whose  designers  and  whose 
purposes  were  alike  unknown.  The  sepulchral 
structures  of  the  Aymaras  also  differed  from  those  of 
the  Incas.  They  were  not  underground  vaults,  but 
stone  structures  erected  on  the  surface,  with  small 
doors  through  which  the  corpse  was  placed  in  the 
tomb.  They  were  called  chulpas,  and  in  construc- 
tion resembled  the  tolas  of  the  Quitus.  Sometimes 
they  are  in  large  groups,  as  the  Pataca  Chulpa, 
"  field  of  a  hundred  tombs,"  in  the  province  of 
Carancas4 

*  One  of  the  most  satisfactory  descriptions  of  them  is  by  E.  G. 
Squier,  Travels  in  Peru,  Chaps.  XV.,  XVI.  (New  York,  1877). 

f  The  observations  of  David  Forbes  on  the  present  architecture 
of  the  Aymaras  lend  strong  support  to  his  theory  that  the  struc- 
tures of  Tiahuanuco,  if  not  projected  by  that  nation,  were  carried 
out  by  Aymara  architects  and  workmen.  See  his  remarks  in 
Jour,  of  the  London  Ethnol.  Soc.,  1870,  p.  259. 

f  D'Orbigny,  L'Homme  Americain,  Tome  I.,  p.  309. 


PERUVIAN   TRIBES.  221 

AYMARA   LINGUISTIC  STOCK. 

Canas,  in  the  Sierra  of  the  province  so-called,  east  of  Cuzco. 
Canchis,  in  the  lowlands  of  the  province  of  Canas. 
Carancas,  south  of  Lake  Titicaca. 
C/tarcas,  between  Lakes  Aullaga  and  Paria. 
Collas,  or  Collaguas>  north  of  Lake  Titicaca. 
Lupacas,  west  of  Lake  Titicaca,  extending  to  Rio  Desaguadero. 
Pacasas,  occupied  the  eastern  shore  of  Lake  Titicaca. 
Quillaguas,  on  part  of  the  southern  shore  of  Lake  Titicaca. 

j.   The  Puquinas. 

The  Puquinas  are  also  known  under  the  names 
Urus  or  Uros,  Hunos  and  Ochozomas.  They  for- 
merly lived  on  the  islands  and  shores  of  Lake  Titi- 
caca, in  the  neighborhood  of  Pucarini,  and  in  several 
villages  of  the  diocese  of  Lima.  Oliva  avers  that 
some  of  them  were  found  on  the  coast  near  Lambaye- 
que.*  If  this  is  correct,  they  had  doubtless  been 
transported  there  by  either  the  Incas  or  the  Spanish 
authorities.  They  are  uniformily  spoken  of  as  low  in 
culture,  shy  of  strangers  and  dull  in  intelligence. 
Acosta  pretends  that  they  were  so  brutish  that  they 
did  not  claim  to  be  men.f  Garcilasso  de  la  Vega 
calls  them  rude  and  stupid. £  Alcedo,  writing  in  the 
latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  century,  states  that  those 
on  the  islands  had,  against  their  will,  been  removed 
to  the  mainland,  where  they  dwelt  in  gloomy  caves 
and  in  holes  in  the  ground  covered  with  reeds,  and 
depended  on  fishing  for  a  subsistence. 

*  Quoted  by  A.  Bastian. 

t  " Son  estos  Uros  tan  brutales  que  ellos mistnos  nose  tienen  por 
hombres."  Acosta,  Historia  de  las  Indias,  p.  62  (Ed.  1591). 

t  "Los  Indios  Puquinas  .  .  .  son  rudos  y  torpes."  La  Vega, 
Comentarios  Reales  de  los  Incas,  Lib.  VII.,  cap.  4. 


222  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

They  are  alleged  to  have  been  jealous  about  their 
language,  and  unwilling  for  any  stranger  to  learn  it. 
Their  religious  exercises  were  conducted  in  Kechua, 
with  which  they  were  all  more  or  less  acquainted. 
The  only  specimen  of  their  tongue  in  modern  trea- 
tises is  the  Lord's  Prayer,  printed  by  Hervas  and 
copied  by  Adelung.*  On  it  Hervas  based  the  opinion 
that  the  Puquina  was  an  independent  stock.  The 
editors  of  the  "  Mithridates"  seemed  to  incline  to  the 
belief  that  it  "was  related  to  the  Aymara,  and  this 
opinion  was  fully  adopted  by  Clement  L.  Markham, 
who  pronounced  it  "a  very  rude  dialect  of  the  Lu- 
paca,"  f  in  which  he  was  followed  by  the  learned 
Von  TschudL$ 

None  of  these  authorities  had  other  material  than 
the  Pater  Noster  referred  to.  Hervas  credits  it  to  a 
work  of  the  missionary  Geronimo  de  Ore,  which  it  is 
evident  that  neither  he  nor  any  of  the  other  writers 
named  had  ever  seen,  as  they  all  speak  of  the  speci- 
men as  the  only  printed  example  of  the  tongue. 
This  work  is  the  Rituale  sen  Manuale  Peruamtm, 
published  at  Naples  in  1607.  It  contains  about 
thirty  pages  in  the  Puquina  tongue,  with  translations 
into  Aymara,  Kechua,  Spanish  and  Latin,  and  thus 
forms  a  mine  of  material  for  the  student.  Though 
rare,  a  copy  of  it  is  in  the  Bibliotheque  Nationale  at 
Paris,  and  is  thus  readily  accessible.  I  have  pub- 
lished a  number  of  extracts  from  its  Puquina  render- 

*  Mithridates,  Theil  III.,  Abth.  II.,  ss.  548-550. 

t  In  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society,  1871,  p.  305. 

\  In  his  Organismus  der  Ketschua  Sprache,  s.  76  (Leipzig,  1884). 


THE    PUQUINAS.  223 

ings  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  American  Philosophical 
Society  for  1890.  They  are  sufficient  to  show  that 
while  this  language  borrowed  many  terms,  especially 
those  referring  to  religion  and  culture,  from  the 
neighboring  Kechua  and  Aymara  dialects,  these  were 
but  additions  to  a  primitive  stock  fundamentally  dif- 
ferent from  either  of  them. 

The  dissimilarity  of  the  three  tongues  is  well  seen 
in  their  numerals,  which  are  as  follows : 


KECHUA. 

AYMARA. 

PUQUINA, 

One, 

hue, 

mayni, 

pesc. 

Two, 

iscay, 

pani, 

so. 

Three, 

quimsa, 

quimsa, 

capa. 

Four, 

tahua, 

pusi, 

sper. 

Five, 

pichka, 

pisca, 

tacpa. 

Six, 

soccta, 

chocta, 

chichun. 

Seven, 

canchis, 

pa-calico, 

stu. 

Eight, 

pusacc. 

quimsa-callco, 

quina. 

Nine, 

iscon, 

llalla-tunca, 

checa. 

Ten, 

chunca, 

tunca, 

scata. 

In  these  lists  the  Aymara  numerals,  one,  two  and 
four  are  independent ;  three,  five,  six  and  ten  are 
taken  from  the  Kechua  ;  and  the  remaining  three  are 
compound,  pa-calico,  being  2+5  ;  quimsa-callco,  3+5  ; 
and  llalla-tunca  meaning  "  less  than  ten."  Calico 
is  derived  from  the  word  for  "  foot,"  the  counting 
being  with  the  toes.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  not 
a  single  numeral  in  the  Puquina  which  can  be  derived 
from  either  Kechua  or  Aymara  ;  and  what  is  more 
remarkable,  there  is  apparently  not  one  which  is 
compounded. 

It  remains  puzzling  to  me  why  the  Puquina,  which 
seems  to  have  been  spoken  only  by  a  few  wretched 


224  THE  AMERICAN   RACE. 

villagers  about  Lake  Titicaca,  should  have  been 
classed  by  writers  in  the  sixteenth  century  as  one  of 
the  Icnguas  generates  of  Peru.  Not  only  does  Ore 
refer  to  it  by  this  term,  but  in  one  of  the  official 
Relaciones  Geograficas  written  in  1582,  it  is  men- 
tioned as  "  one  of  the  three  general  languages  of  this 
kingdom."  *  This  would  seem  to  indicate  that  at 
that  period  it  had  a  wider  extension  than  we  can  now 
trace. 

^.   The   Yuncas. 

The  Yuncas  occupied  the  hot  valleys  near  the  sea 
between  south  latitude  5°  and  10°,  their  capital  being 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  present  city  of  Truxillo.  Their 
tongue  belongs  to  an  entirely  different  stock  from  the 
Kechua,  and  was  not  influenced  by  it.  It  still  sur- 
vives in  a  few  sequestered  valleys.  The  extreme  diffi- 
culty of  its  phonetics  aided  to  prevent  its  extension.f 

There  is  little  doubt  but  that  the  Yuncas  immi- 
grated to  their  locality  at  some  not  very  distant 
period  before  the  conquest.  According  to  their  own 
traditions  their  ancestors  journeyed  down  the  coast  in 
their  canoes  from  a  home  to  the  north,  until  they 
reached  the  port  of  Truxillo.:}:  Here  they  settled 
and  in  later  years  constructed  the  enormous  palace 
known  as  the  Gran  Chimu,  whose  massive  brick 
walls,  spacious  terraces,  vast  galleries  and  fronts 

*  Relaciones  Geograficas  de  Indias,  Peru,  Tom.  I.,  p.  82.  (Ma- 
drid, 1881.) 

t  Fernando  de  la  Carrera,  Arte  de  la  Lengua  Yunga.  (Lima, 
1644,  reprint,  Lima,  1880. ) 

\  See  Von  Tschudi,  Die  Kechua  Sprache,  p.  83,  84. 


PERUVIAN  TRIBES.  225 

decorated  with  bas-reliefs  and  rich  frescoes,  are    still 
the  wonder  and  admiration  of  travelers.* 

Near  by,  in  the  valley  of  Chicama  and  vicinity,  they 
constructed  capacious  reservoirs  and  canals  for  irriga- 
tion  which  watered  their  well-tilled  fields,  and  were 
so  solidly  constructed  that  some  of  them  have  been 
utilized  by  enterprising  planters  in  this  generation. 
Doubtless  some  of  these  were  the  work  of  the  Incas 
after  their  conquest  of  this  valley  by  the  Inca  Pacha- 
cutec,  as  is  related  by  Garcilasso  de  la  Vega,f  but  the 
fact  that  the  Chimus  were  even  before  that  date 
famed  for  their  expertness  in  the  working  of  metals 
and  the  fashioning  of  jewels  and  vases  in  silver  and 
gold,:}:  proves  that  they  did  net  owe  their  culture  to 
the  instruction  of  the  Quichuas. 

Ths  term  yunca-cuna  is  a  generic  one  in  the  Ke- 
chua  language,  and  means  simply  "  dwellers  in  the 
warm  country,"  the  ticrra  caliente,  near  the  sea 
coast.  It  was  more  particularly  applied  to  the  Chi- 
mus near  Truxillo,  but  included  a  number  of  other 
tribes,  all  of  whom,  it  is  said,  spoke  related  dialects. 
Of  the  list  which  I  append  we  are  sure  of  the  Mochi- 
cas  or  Chinchas,  as  the  Yunca  portion  of  Geronimo 
de  Ore's  work  is  in  this  dialect  ;  §  of  the  Estenes, 
Bastian  has  printed  quite  a  full  vocabulary  which  is 
nearly  identical  with  the  Yunca  of  Carrera ;  \  Mr. 

*  Charles  Wiener,  Perou  et  Bolivie,  p.  98,  seq.     (Paris,  1880.) 

f  Commentaries  Reales,   Lib.  VI.,  cap.  32. 

J  See  the  chapter  on  "The  Art,  Customs  and  Religion  of  the 
Chimus,"  in  E.  G.  Squier's  Peru,  p.  170,  sq.  (New  York,  1877.) 

?  "En  la  lengua  Mochica  de  los  Yungas."  Geronimo  de  Ore, 
Rituale  scu  Manuale  Peruanum.  (Neapoli,  1607.) 

||  A.  Bastian,  Die  Culturldnder  Alt-A-mer.  Bd.  II. 
IS 


226  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

Spruce  obtained  in  1863  a  vocabulary  of  forty  words 
from  the  Sechuras,  proving  them  to  belong  to  this 
stock  ;  *  but  the  dialects  of  the  Colanes  and  Catacoas 
are  said  by  the  same  authority  to  be  now  extinct. 
According  to  the  information  obtained  by  the  Abbe 
Hervas,  the  "  Colorados  of  Angamarca  "  also  spoke 
a  Yunca  dialect,  f  but  I  have  been  unable  to  identify 
this  particular  tribe  of  "  painted  "  Indians. 

The  location  of  the  stock  at  the  conquest  may  be 
said  to  have  been  from  south  lat.  4°  to  10°  ;  and  to 
have  included  the  three  departments  of  modern  Peru 
called  Ancachs,  Libertad,  and  Piura. 

YUNCA  LINGUISTIC  STOCK. 

Catacaos,  on  the  upper  Rio  Piura. 

Chancost  on  the  coast  south  of  the  Mochicas. 

Chimus,  near  Truxillo. 

Chinchas,  see  Mochicas. 

Colanes,  on  Rio  Chiura,  north  of  Payta. 

Etenes,  in  the  valleys  south  of  Lainbayeque. 

Mochicas,  at  Mochi,  near  Truxillo. 

Morropes,  north  of  Lambayeque. 

Sechuras,  on  Rio  Piura. 

5.   The  Atacameiios  and  Changes. 

In  the  valley  of  the  river  Loa,  about  2O°-23°  south 
latitude,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  Atacama,  there  still 
survive  remnants  of  a  tribe  called  Atacameiios  by 
the  Spaniards,  but  by  themselves  Lican-Antais,  peo- 
ple of  the  villages.  Their  language  appears  to  be  of 

*  In  C.  R.  Markham's  translation  of  Ciezade  Leon,  Introduction, 
p.  xlii.     (London,  1864.) 
f  Catalogo  de  las  Lenguas  Conocidas,  Tome  I.,  p.  274. 


THE  ATACAMENOS.  22/ 

an  independent  stock,  equally  remote  from  that  of 
the  Kechuas  and  the  Aymaras.  Vocabularies  of  it 
have  been  preserved  by  various  travelers,  and  the  out- 
lines of  its  grammar  have  been  recently  published  by 
San-Roman.*  From  two  of  its  numerals  and  some 
other  indications  Dr.  Darapsky  has  connected  it  with 
the  Aymara,  which  is  also  spoken  in  that  vicinity. f 
The  relationship,  however,  cannot  be  considered  es- 
tablished, and  the  latest  researches  tend  to  sharpen 
the  contrast  between  the  Cunza,  as  it  is  sometimes 
called,  and  the  Aymara. 

The  Lican-antais  are  fishermen  and  live  in  a  con- 
dition of  destitution.  The  aridity  of  the  climate  is 
unfavorable  to  agriculture.  In  physical  habitus  they 
are  short,  with  dark  complexions,  flat  broad  noses  and 
low  foreheads. 

D'Orbigny  identifies  the  Lican-Antais  with  the 
Olipes,  Lipes  or  Llipis  of  the  older  writers  ^  (Garci- 
lasso,  etc).  This,  however,  is  open  to  doubt.  Von 
Tschudi  hazarded  the  opinion  that  the  Atacamefios 
were  a  remnant  of  the  Calchaquis  of  Tucuman,  who 

*  Dr.  R.  A.  Philippi,  Reise  durch  die  Wuste  Alacama,  s.  66. 
(Halle,  1860.)  J.  J.  von  Tschudi,  Reisen  durch  Slid- Amerika,  Bd. 
V.,  s.  82-84.  T.  H.  Moore,  Compte-Rendu  du  Congres  Internal, 
des  Americanistes,  1877,  Vol.  II.,  p.  44,  sq.  Francisco  J.  San- 
Roman,  La  Lengua  Cunza  de  los  Naturales  de  Atacama  (Santiago 
de  Chile,  1890).  The  word  cunza  in  this  tongue  is  the  pronoun 
"our," — the  natives  speak  of  lengua  cunza,  "our  language." 
Tschudi  gives  the  only  text  I  know — two  versions  of  the  Lord's 
Prayer. 

f  "  Con  la  nacion  Aymara  esta  visiblimente  emparentada  la  Ata- 
camena."  Dr.  L.  Darapsky,  "  Estudios  L/inguisticos  Americanos, " 
in  the  Bulletin  del  Institute  Geog.  Argentina \  1890,  p.  96. 

%  L'Homme  Americain,  Toin.  II.,  p.  330. 


228  THE  AMERICAN    RACE. 

had  sought  refuge  from  the  Spaniards  in  this  remote 
oasis  on  the  coast.*  I  can  find  no  positive  support 
for  this  view,  as  we  have  no  specimens  of  the  lan- 
guage of  the  Calchaquis. 

Immediately  to  the  south  of  the  Atacamefios,  bor- 
dering upon  the  sterile  sands  of  the  desert  of  Ata- 
cama,  between  south  latitude  22°  and  24°,  are  the 
Cliangos.  In  their  country  it  never  rains,  and  for 
food  they  depend  entirely  on  the  yield  of  the  sea,  fish, 
Crustacea  and  edible  algae.  Like  the  Bushmen  of  the 
Kalihari  desert,  and  doubtless  for  the  same  reason  of 
insufficient  nutrition,  they  are  undersized,  as  a  tribe 
perhaps  of  the  shortest  stature  of  any  on  the  conti- 
nent. The  average  of  the  males  is  four  feet  nine 
inches,  and  very  few  reach  five  feet.f  They  are,  how- 
ever, solidly  built  and  vigorous.  The  color  is  dark, 
the  nose  straight  and  the  eyes  horizontal. 

Nothing  satisfactory  is  reported  about  their  lan- 
guage, which  is  asserted  to  be  different  from  the 
Aymara  or  any  other  stock.  The  tribe  has  been  con- 
founded by  some  writers  with  the  Atacamefios,  and 
the  Spaniards  apparently  included  both  under  the 
term  Changes ;  which  is  at  present  used  as  a  term  of 
depreciation.  But  both  in  location  and  appearance 
they  are  diverse.  Whether  this  extends  also  to  lan- 
guage, as  is  alleged,  I  have  not  the  material  to  deter- 
mine, and  probably  the  tongue  is  extinct.^; 

*  Organismus  der  Khetsua  Sprache,  s.  71,  and  Reisen,  Bd.  V., 
s.  84. 

t  Alcide  D'Orbigny,  L'Hoinme  Americain,  Tome  I.,  p.  334. 
(Paris,  1839.) 

\  "  Entre  los  Changes  no  se  conserva  vestigiode  lengua  indijena 
alguna."  F.  J.  San-Roman,  La  Lengua  Cunza,  p.  4. 


II.  THE  SOUTH  ATLANTIC  GROUP. 


I.   THE   AMAZONIAN   REGION. 

two  mighty  rivers,  the  Amazon  and  the 
Orinoco,  belong  to  one  hydrographic  system,  the 
upper  affluents  of  the  latter  pouring  their  waters  for 
six  months  of  the  year  into  the  majestic  expanse  of 
the  former.  Together  they  drain  over  three  mil- 
lion square  miles  of  land,*  clothed  throughout  with 
lush  tropical  vegetation  and  seamed  by  innumerable 
streams,  offering  natural  and  facile  paths  of  inter- 
communication. It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that 
we  find  linguistic  stocks  extended  most  widely  over 
this  vast  area,  each  counting  numerous  members. 
Of  them  the  most  widely  disseminated  were  the  Tupi, 
the  Tapuya,  the  Carib  and  the  Arawak  families,  and 
to  these  I  shall  first  give  attention. 

i.   The  Tupis. 

Along  the  coast  of  Brazil  and  up  the  Amazon  there 
is  current  a  more  or  less  corrupted  native  tongue 
called  the  "  common  language,"  lingua  geral.  It  is 
derived  mainly  from  the  idiom  of  the  Tupis,  whose 

*  Wallace  estimates  the  area  of  the  Amazon  basin  alone,  not  in- 
cluding that  of  the  Rio  Tocantins,  which  he  regards  as  a  different 
system,  at  2,300,000  square  miles.  ( Travels  en  the  Amazon  and 
Rio  Negro,  p.  526.) 

(229) 


230  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

villages  were  found  by  the  first  discoverers  along  the 
seaboard,  from  the  mouth  of  the  La  Plata  to  the 
Amazon  and  far  up  the  stream  of  the  latter.  Accord- 
ing to  their  traditions,  which  are  supported  by  a 
comparison  of  their  dialects,  the  Tupis  wandered  up 
the  coast  from  the  south.  Their  earlier  home  was 
between  the  Parana  river  and  the  Atlantic.  There 
they  called  themselves  Carai,  the  astute,  a  term  they 
afterwards  applied  to  the  Spaniards,  but  later  were 
given  the  name  Guaram's,  meaning  warriors,  by  which 
they  are  generally  known.  They  must  have  been 
very  numerous,  as  a  careful  estimate  made  in  1612 
computed  those  then  living  in  the  modern  states  of 
Corrientes  and  Uruguay  at  365,000;  a  census  which 
could  not  have  been  much  exaggerated,  as  about  a 
century  later  the  Jesuits  claimed  to  have  over  three 
hundred  thousand  Christianized  and  living  in  their 
"  reductions  ;"*  even  to-day  ninety  percent,  of  the 
population  of  Uruguay  have  Guarani  blood  in  their 
veins. 

The  inroads  of  the  Spaniards  from  the  south  and  of 
the  kidnapping  Portuguese  from  the  east,  reduced 
their  number  greatly,  and  many  bands  sought  safety 
in  distant  removals  ;  thus  the  Chiriguanos  moved  far 
to  the  west  and  settled  on  the  highlands  of  Bolivia, 
where  they  have  increased  their  stock  from  four  or 
five  thousand  to  triple  that  number.f  extending  as 

*  See  authorities  in  Von  Martius,  Ethnographie  und  Sprachen- 
kunde  Ametikas,  Bd.  I.,  s.  185.  (Leipzig,  1867.) 

f  The  origin  of  the  Chiriguanos  is  related  from  authentic  tradi- 
tions by  Nicolas  del  Techo,  Historia  Provinciae  Paraguariae,  Lib. 
XI.,  Cap.  2.  The  name  Chiriguano  means  "  cold,"  from  the  tem- 
perature of  the  upland  region  to  which  they  removed. 


THE  TUPI   STOCK.  231 

far  south  as  the  Pilcomayo  river.  On  the  upper  waters 
of  the  Parana  were  the  Tapes,  a  nation  so  called  from 
the  name  of  their  principal  village.  It  is  another 
form  of  Tupi,  and  means  "  town."  They  received  the 
early  missionaries  willingly,  and  are  complimented 
by  these  as  being  the  most  docile  and  intelligent  of 
any  of  the  nations  of  South  America.* 

The  Tupi  tribes  did  not  extend  north  of  the  imme- 
diate banks  of  the  Amazon,  nor  south  of  the  Rio  de 
la  Plata.  It  would  appear  not  improbable  that  they 
started  from  the  central  highlands  where  the  Tapajoz 
on  the  north  and  the  Paraguay  on  the  south  have 
their  sources.  Their  main  body  followed  the  latter 
to  the  Atlantic,  where  the  Tupis  proper  separated 
and  moved  up  the  coast  of  Brazil.  This  latter  mi- 
gration is  believed  to  have  been  as  late  as  a  few  hun- 
dred years  before  the  discovery. f 

Like  the  Tapuyas,  the  Tupis  have  a  tendency  to 
dolicocephaly,  but  it  is  less  pronounced.  They  are 
less  prognathic,  the  forehead  is  fuller  and  the  color  of 
the  skin  brighter.  The  hair  is  generally  straight, 
but  Poppig  saw  many  among  the  Cocamas  of  pure 
blood  with  wavy  and  even  curly  hair4 

I  have  no  hesitation  in  including  in  the  Tupi  family 
the  Mundurucus,  or  Paris,  on  the  upper  Tapajoz. 
Their  relationship  was  fully  recognized  by  Professor 


*  "  Nullam  gen  tern  Christianis  moribus  capessendis  autretiendis 
aptiorem  in  austral!  hoc  America  fuisse  repertam. "  Nicolas  del 
Techo,  loc.  cit.,  Lib.  X.,  Cap.  9. 

fCotnp.  von  Martius,  u.  s.,  s.  179. 

t  Reise  in  Chile  und  Peru,  Bd.  II.,  s.  450. 


232  THE  AMERICAN   RACE. 

Hartt,  who  was  well  acquainted  with  both  dialects.* 
They  are  a  superior  stamp  of  men,  tall,  of  athletic 
figures,  light  in  color,  their  naked  bodies  artistically 
tattooed.  Their  women  are  skilled  in  weaving  cot- 
ton hammocks,  and  the  men  pursue  some  agriculture, 
and  manufacture  handsome  feather  ornaments. 

To  the  same  family  belong  the  Muras  and  Turas,  in 
the  swampy  valley  of  the  Madeira  in  its  middle  course, 
"  an  amphibious  race  of  ichthyophagi,"  as  they  are 
called  by  Martius,  savage  and  hostile,  and  depraved 
by  the  use  of  the  parica,  a  narcotic,  intoxicating 
snuff  prepared  from  the  dried  seeds  of  the  Mimosa 
acacioides.  At  the  beginning  of  this  century  they 
were  estimated  at  12,000  bowmen  ;  but  this  was  doubt- 
less a  great  exaggeration.  Though  their  dialect  dif- 
fers widely  from  the  lingua  geral,  the  majority  of 
their  words  are  from  Tupi  roots. f  Others  are  related 
to  the  language  of  the  Moxos,  and  in  the  last  century 
certain  of  their  tribes  lived  in  the  immediate  vicinity 
of  these,  and  were  brought  into  the  "  reductions  "  of 
the  Moxos  Indians  by  the  Jesuit  missionaries.^  The 
tendency  of  their  migrations  has  been  down  the 
Madeira. 

*  "Though  widely  different  from  the  Tupi,  ancient  or  modern,  I 
am  satisfied  that  the  Mundurucu  belongs  to  the  same  family. " 
C.  F.  Hartt,  in  Trans,  of  the  Amer.  Philological  Association,  1872, 
p.  75- 

fVon  Martius,  Ethnographic  und  Sprachenkunde  Amerikas, 
Bd.  I.,  s.  412.  A  specimen  of  their  vocalic  and  sonorous  language 
is  given  by  E.  Teza,  Saggi  Inediti  di  Lingue  Americane,  p.  43. 
(Pisa,  1868.) 

J  G.  Coleti,  Dizionario  S'orico-Geografico  dell1  America  Meri- 
dionals, Tom.  II.,  p.  38.  (Venezia,  1771.) 


THE  TUPI   STOCK.  233 

The  tribes  of  this  lineage  in  the  extreme  south  of 
Brazil  were  numerous.  The  Guachaguis,  corres- 
ponding apparently  to  the  modern  Guachis,  are  said 
by  Lozano  to  speak  a  corrupt  Guarani.*  Vocabu- 
laries have  been  obtained  by  Castelnau  and  Natterer, 
which  indicate  only  a  remote  resemblance.  Accord- 
ing to  their  own  tradition,  they  migrated  from  near 
the  Moxos  in  the  Bolivian  highlands. 

The  Gualachos,  who  spread  from  the  river  Iguaza 
to  the  sea  coast,  spoke  a  Guarani  dialect  in  which  the 
sounds  of  f,  j  and  /  were  present,  which,  in  pure 
Guarani,  are  absent.  They  built  thatched  houses 
divided  into  several  rooms,  and  raised  abundant  har- 
vests.f 

The  Omaguas  and  Cocamas,  the  most  western  of 
the  Tupis,  dwelling  within  the  limits  of  Ecuador, 
had  evidently  profited  by  their  contiguity  to  the  civi- 
lization of  Peru,  as  they  are  described  by  early  trav- 
elers as  familiar  with  gold,  silver  and  copper,  living 
in  permanent  villages  connected  by  good  roads,  and 
cultivating  large  fields  of  cotton,  maize  and  various 
food-plants.  The  art-forms  which  they  produced  and 
the  prevalence  of  sun-worship,  with  rites  similar  to 
those  of  Peru,  indicate  the  source  of  their  more  ad- 
vanced culture.  By  some  authors  the  Omaguas  are 
stated  to  have  migrated  down  the  Rio  Yupara  from 
Popayan  in  New  Granada,  where  a  tribe  speaking 
their  dialect,  the  Mesayas  are  alleged  still  to  reside.^: 

*  Lozano,  Hist,  de  la  Conquista  de  Paraguay,  pp.  415,  416. 

t  Lozano,  Ibid.,  pp.  422-425. 

J  Paul  Marcoy,  Voyage  £  trovers  VAmeriqne  du  Slid,  Tome  II., 
p.  241  ;  comp.  Waitz,  Anthropologie  der  Naturvolkert  Bd.  III., 
s.  427- 


234  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

The  peculiar  "  mitred  "  skulls  of  the  Omaguas  are  an 
artificial  deformity  prized  by  them  as  a  beauty. 

The  Tupi  is  rich  in  mythological  tales  which  have 
been  collected  by  several  competent  students  of  their 
tongue.  (Hartt,  Magalhaes,  etc.)  Their  religion  is 
a  simple  animistic  nature-worship. 

The  dead  were  buried  in  large  urns,  usually  in  lo- 
calities set  aside  for  the  purpose.  One  such  on  the 
island  Maraho,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon,  has 
yielded  a  rich  harvest  to  archaeologists. 

The  general  culture  of  the  Tupis  was  superior  to 
that  of  any  other  Brazilian  tribes,  but  much  inferior 
to  that  of  the  Incas.  They  were  to  a  slight  extent 
agricultural,  raising  maize,  manioc,  tobacco,  which 
they  smoked  in  pipes,  and  several  vegetables.  Some 
fowls,  monkeys  and  peccaries  were  tamed  and  used  as 
food.  Their  houses  were  of  straw,  lattice  work  and 
leaves,  sometimes  plastered  with  mud.  The  com- 
munal system  prevailed,  twenty  or  thirty  families 
occupying  one  residence.  A  number  of  such  houses 
would  be  erected  on  some  favorable  site  and  sur- 
rounded by  a  palisade  of  strong  poles.  These  towns 
were,  however,  not  permanent,  and  nearly  half  the 
year  was  spent  in  hunting  and  fishing  expeditions 
along  the  streams.  They  went  entirely  naked,  but 
wove  excellent  hammocks  from  the  bark  of  trees  and 
other  vegetable  fibres.  Devoid  of  a  knowledge  of 
metals,  they  were  in  the  height  of  the  age  of  polished 
stone,  many  of  their  products  in  this  direction  being 
celebrated  for  symmetry  and  delicacy.*  The  art  of 

*  The  "Amazon-stones,"  muira-kitan,  are  ornaments  of  hard 
stone,  as  jade  or  quartz. 


LANGUAGE  OF  THE  TUPI.  235 

the  potter  was  also  well  developed,  and  the  vases  from 
the  Amazon,  called  igasauas,  rank  both  in  symmetry, 
decoration  and  fine  workmanship  among  the  most 
creditable  specimens  of  American  ceramics. 

The  language  which  characterizes  this  widely  dis- 
tributed stock  is  polysynthetic  and  incorporating, 
with  the  flexibility  peculiar  to  this  class  of  tongues. 
It  has  been  the  subject  of  a  number  of  works,  but  still 
lacks  a  thorough  comparative  treatment.  The  Jesuit 
missionaries  adopted  the  Guarani  dialect  throughout 
their  extensive  "  reductions,"  and  translated  into  it  a 
variety  of  works  for  the  instruction  of  their  acolytes, 
some  of  which  have  been  printed. 

TUPI  LINGUISTIC  STOCK. 
Ababas,  in  Bolivia. 
Amazonas,  on  lower  Amazon. 
Anambes,  on  Rio  Tocantins. 
Apiacas,  near  Rio  Arinps  and  upper  Tapajoz. 
Araguagus,  on  lower  Paru. 
Bororos,  near  Rio  Paraguay. 
Camaguras,  in  province  Matogrosso. 
Cambevas,  see  Omaguas. 
Cambocas*  mouth  of  Rio  Tocantin. 
Caracatas,  on  upper  Uruguay  and  Parana. 
Cayovas,  on  Rio  Tapajoz. 
Chaneses,  in  Bolivia. 
Chiriguanos,  in  Bolivia. 
Chogurus,  on  Rio  Pajehu. 

Cocamas,  near  Rio  Nauta  (upper  Amazon)  and  Rio  Ucayali. 
Cocamillas,  near  the  Cocamas. 
Cuchiuaras,  on  Rio  Tocantins. 
Guaranis,  in  Uruguay. 
Guarayos,  in  Bolivia. 
Guayanas,  in  Uruguay. 
Gujajaras,  on  Rio  Maranhas. 
Jacundas,  on  Rio  Tocantins. 


236  THE   AMERICAN    RACE. 

Jantudas,  in  province  Pard. 

Mattes,  on  the  Amazon. 

Mbeguas,  on  Rio  Parana. 

Manitsauas,  on  upper  Schingu. 

Mitandues,  near  Rio  Tapajoz. 

Mnndrucus,  on  Rio  Tapajoz. 

Muras,  on  Rio  Madeira. 

Omaguas,  on  lower  lea. 

Oyampis,  on  upper  Oyapok. 

Pacajas,  on  lower  Amazon. 

Parentintims,  in  province  Amazonas. 

Paris,  see  Mnndrncus. 

Piturunas,  on  Rio  Curitiba. 

Sirionos,  on  Rio  Paray,  Bolivia. 

Tamoyos,  near  San  Vincente,  Brazil  (extinct). 

Tapaunas,  on  Rio  Tocantins. 

Tapirapes,  in  province  Goyaz. 

Tapes,  on  Rio  Uruguay. 

Turns,  on  lower  Rio  Madeira. 

Uyapas,  on  Rio  Arinos. 

y^lr^lnast  on  Rio  Schingu,  from  4°  to  8°. 

2.    The  Tapuyas. 

The  Tapuya  stock  is  at  once  the  most  ancient  and 
the  most  extensive  now  living  on  the  soil  of  Brazil. 
Its  various  tribes  are  found  from  s.  lat.  5°  to  s.  lat. 
20°,  and  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Schingu  river.  The 
name  Tainiya  was  applied  to  them  by  the  Tupis,  and 
means  "  enemies  "  or  "  strangers  " — two  ideas  which 
are  always  synonymous  in  primitive  life.  They  are 
also  called  Crens  or  Guerens,  the  Old  Ones  or  Ancient 
People.  This  seems  to  have  reference  to  their  pos- 
session of  the  coast  before  the  arrival  of  the  Tupi 
hordes  from  the  south. 

By  some  writers  they  are  believed  to  have  been  the 
earliest  constructors  of  the  sambaquis,  the  shell-heaps 


THE    TAPUYAS.       ,  237 

or  kitchen-middens,  which  are  of  great  size  and  nu- 
merous, along  the  Atlantic  and  its  bays.  These  are 
supposed  to  indicate  an  antiquity  of  2,000  years  ;  *  but 
the  Tapuyas  can  lay  claim  to  a  title  to  their  land  far 
older  than  that.  The  skulls  and  human  bones  which 
were  discovered  by  Dr.  Lund  in  the  caves  of  Lagoa 
Santa  in  immediate  juxtaposition  to  those  of  animals 
now  extinct,  came  from  a  region  occupied  by  the  Tap- 
uyas, and  are  in  all  respects  parallel  to  those  of  the 
tribe  to-day.  This  would  assign  them  a  residence  on 
the  spot  far  back  in  the  present  geologic  period. 

Their  appearance  is  that  of  an  antique  race  of  men. 
They  are  of  middle  height,  with  long  upper  and  short 
lower  extremities.  The  face  is  broad,  the  eyes  small 
and  under  prominent  ridges,  the  forehead  low  and  re- 
treating ;  the  sutures  are  simple,  the  face  prognathic, 
and  the  skull  decidedly  dolichocephalic  (73),  but  of 
good  capacity  (1470  cub.  cent.),  and  leptorhinic  ;  the 
mouth  is  large  and  the  nose  prominent.  In  color 
they  present  a  variety  of  shades  of  reddish-brown, 
and  their  hair,  which  is  coarse,  verges  rather  on  the 
dark-brown  than  the  black.f  They  are  not  ugly, 
and  the  expression  of  the  face,  especially  in  the 
young,  is  often  attractive.  Those  of  them,  however, 
who  distend  the  lowef  lip  with  the  large  labret  or 
botoque  (from  which  the  Botocudos  derive  their  name), 
cannot  be  other  than  hideous  to  European  eyes. 

*  H.  Miiller,  in  Contpte  Rendue  duCongrts  Internal,  des  Am6ri- 
canistes,  1888,  p.  461. 

fDr.  P.  M.  Rey,  Etude  Anthropologique  sur  les  Botocudos,  p.  51 
and  passim.  (Paris,  1880.)  Dr.  Paul  Ehrenreich,  "  Ueber  die 
Botocudos,"  in  Zeitschrift fiir  Ethnologic,  1887,  Heft  I. 


238  THE  AMERICAN  RACE. 

In  culture  the  Tapuyas  are  reported  to  stand  on  the 
lowest  scale.  When  free  in  their  native  woods  they 
go  absolutely  naked ;  they  have  no  other  houses  than 
temporary  shelters  of  leaves  and  branches;  they  man- 
ufacture no  pottery,  build  no  canoes,  and  do  not  know 
how  to  swim.  When  first  in  contact  with  the  whites 
they  had  no  dogs,  knew  nothing  of  the  use  of  tobacco 
or  salt,  and  were  common  cannibals.  They  have  no 
tribal  organizations  and  no  definite  religious  rites. 

To  counterbalance  all  these  negatives,  I  hasten  to 
add  that  they  are  hunters  of  singular  skill,  using 
strong  bows  with  long  arrows,  manufacture  polished 
stone  axes  and  weave  baskets  of  reeds,  and,  what  is 
rare  among  the  Indians,  use  tapers  made  from  wild 
bees-wax  and  bark  fibre.*  Their  marriages  are  mo- 
nogamous, though  rarely  permanent,  and  they  are  not 
devoid  of  family  affection.f  Though  lacking  definite 
religious  ideas,  they  are  careful  to  bury  the  dead,  and 
have  a  belief  that  the  spirit  of  the  departed  survives 
and  wanders  about  at  night,  for  which  reason  they 
are  loth  to  move  in  the  dark.  The  soul  of  a  chief 
may  take  the  form  of  a  jaguar.  During  a  thunder 
storm  they  shake  a  burning  brand  and  shoot  arrows 
toward  the  sky,  to  appease  by  imitation  the  powers  of 
the  storm  ;  and  they  are  much  given  to  semi-religious 

*  Von  Tschudi,  Reise  in  Sud  Amerika,  Bd.  II.,  p.  281.  If  this  is 
one  of  their  ancient  arts,  it  is  the  only  instance  of  the  invention  of 
an  artificial  light  south  of  the  Eskimos  in  America. 

t  Dr.  P.  M.  Rey  states  that  the  custom  of  kissing  is  known  to 
them  both  as  a  sign  of  peace  between  men,  and  of  affection  from 
mothers  to  children.  (Et  de  Anthropologique  sur  les  Botocudos, 
p.  74,  Paris,  1880.)  This  is  unusual,  and  indeed  I  know  no  other 
native  tribe  who  employed  this  sign  of  friendship. 


THE   TAPUYAS.  239 

dances,  in  which  their  motions  are  to  the  sound  of  a 
native  flute,  which  is  played  with  the  nose.* 

Their  language  is  difficult  in  its  phonetics,  and 
presents  a  contrast  to  most  American  tongues  by  its 
tendency  toward  the  isolating  form,  with  slight  agglu- 
tination. A  carefully  prepared  vocabulary  of  it  has 
recently  been  published  by  Dr.  Paul  Ehrenreich,f 
whose  studies  on  this  stock  have  been  peculiarly 

valuable. 

TAPUYA  LINGUISTIC  STOCK. 

Apina-g£s,  north  of  Rio  Tocantins. 

Aponegi-crens,  in  south  of  province  Marinhao. 

Acroas,  near  Rio  Tocantins. 

Aimores,  see  Botocudos. 

Botocudos,  in  Sierra  dos  Aimures. 

Carahos,  on  Rio  Tocantins. 

Camacans,  near  Rio  Pardo. 

Cayapos,  north  of  Rio  Pardo. 

Chavantes,  near  Rio  Maranhao. 

Cherentes,  near  Rio  Tocantins. 

Chicriabas,  near  Rio  de  San  Francisco. 

Coretus,  on  Rio  Yupura. 

Cotoxos,  near  Rio  Doce. 

Cumanachos,  in  province  Goyaz. 

Crens,  see  Botocudos. 

G£s,  in  province  Goyaz. 

GoyotacciS)  in  province  Goyaz  (see  below). 

Malalalis,  near  Rio  Doce. 

Malalis,  in  province  Goyaz. 

Masacaras,  in  province  Goyaz. 

Pancas,  on  Rio  das  Pancas. 

Potis  (Poton],  on  upper  Mucuri. 

Puris,  near  Rio  Paraiba. 

Suyas,  on  upper  Schihgu. 

*Dr.  Rey,  loc.  cit.,  p.  78,  79. 

f  In  the  Zeitschriftfur  Ethnologic,  1887,  s.  49. 


240  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

The  Goyotacas  in  the  province  of  Goyaz  and  the 
regions  adjacent  include  a  large  number  of  tribes 
which  Von  Martius  has  shown  to  have  sufficient  lin- 
guistic affinity  among  themselves  to  unite  in  one 
group,  and  connections  enough  with  the  Tapuya 
stem  to  be  regarded  as  one  of  its  sub-stocks.* 

GOYOTACA  SUB-STOCK. 

Capochos,  in  the  sierra  between  Minas  Geraes  and  Porto  Seguro. 

Coropos,  on  the  Rio  da  Pomba. 

Cumanachos,  adjacent  to  the  Capochos. 

Machacalis,  on  and  near  Rio  Mucury. 

Macunis,  between  Minas  Geraes  and  Porto  Seguro. 

Monoxos,  adjacent  to  the  Macuris. 

Panhames,  on  head-waters  of  Rio  Mucury. 

Palachos,  on  head-waters  of  Rio  de  Porto  Seguro. 

Another  group  believed  by  Martius  to  be  a  mixed 
off-shoot  of  the  Tapuya  family  belong  to  what  I  may 
call  the 

TUCANO  SUB-STOCK. 

Cobeus,  on  Rio  Uaupes. 
Dace,  on  Rio  Uaupes. 
Jupua,  on  upper  Yupura. 
Jauna,  on  Rio  Uaupes. 
Tucano,  on  Rio  Uaupes. 

All  these  tribes  are  found  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
river  Uaupes,  and  are  distinguished  by  three  vertical 
lines  tattooed  or  incised  on  the  cheeks.  They  take 
their  name,  as  do  some  other  Brazilian  tribes  not  re- 
lated to  them,  from  the  beautiful  toucan  bird,  which 

*  A  comparative  vocabulary  of  these  dialects  is  given  by  Von 
Martius,  Ethnographic  und  Sprachenkunde  Amerikas,  Bd.  I.,  s. 
310. 


THE  ARAWAK  STOCK.  241 

is  frequently  held  sacred  among  them,  and  is  some- 
times chosen  as  the  totem  of  a  gens. 

I  also  attach  to  this  stock  the  Carnijos  or  Fornio,  a 
vocabulary  of  whose  language  has  been  published  by 
Professor  John  C.  Branner,  and  which  hitherto  has 
not  been  identified.*  The  following  comparison  be- 
tween it  and  the  Tapuya  dialects  will  show  the  af- 
finity: 

CARNIJOS.  TAPUYA. 

Fire,  toch,  tiakoh. 

Eye,  i-to,  ainthd,  kitho. 

Nose,  d-eretat  d'asigri. 

Tooth,  i-axi,  aiqud,  daguoi. 

j.   The  Araivaks. 

The  Arawak  stock  of  languages  is  the  most  widely 
disseminated  of  any  in  South  America.  It  begins  at 
the  south  with  the  Guanas,  on  the  head-waters  of  the 
river  Paraguay,  and  with  the  Baures  and  Moxos  on 
the  highlands  of  southern  Bolivia,  and  thence  extends 
almost  in  continuity  to  the  Goajiros  peninsula,  the 
most  northern  land  of  the  continent.  Nor  did  it  cease 
there.  All  the  Antilles,  both  Greater  and  Less,  were 
originally  occupied  by  its  members,  and  so  were  the 
Bahama  Islands, f  thus  extending  its  dialects  to  within 
a  short  distance  of  the  mainland  of  the  northern  con- 

*  In  the  Transactions  of  the  American  Association  for  the  Ad- 
vancement of  Science,  1886,  p.  329.  The  terms  for  comparison  are 
borrowed  from  Von  den  Steinen's  Comparative  Vocabulary  of  the 
Tapuya  Dialects. 

t  See  D.  G.  Brinton,  "  The  Arawack  Language  of  Guiana  in  its 
Linguistic  and  Ethnological  Relations, "  in  Trans,  of  the  Amer. 
Phil.  Sot.,  1871. 

16 


242  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

tinent,  and  over  forty-five  degrees  of  latitude.  Its 
tribes  probably  at  one  time  occupied  the  most  of  the 
lowlands  of  Venezuela,  whence  they  were  driven  not 
long  before  the  discovery  by  the  Caribs,  as  they  also 
were  from  many  of  the  southern  islands  of  the  West 
Indian  archipelago.  The  latter  event  was  then  of 
such  recent  occurrence  that  the  women  of  the  Island 
Caribs,  most  of  whom  had  been  captured  from  the 
Arawaks,  still  spoke  that  tongue. 

They  were  thus  the  first  of  the  natives  of  the  New 
World  to  receive  the  visitors  from  European  climes, 
and  the  words  picked  up  by  Columbus  and  his  suc- 
cessors on  the  Bahamas,  Cuba  and  Hayti,  are  readily 
explained  by  the  modern  dialects  of  this  stock.  No 
other  nation  was  found  on  any  part  of  the  archipelago 
except  the  two  I  have  mentioned.  The  whole  of  the 
coast  between  the  mouths  of  the  Orinoco  and  Amazon 
appears  to  have  been  in  their  possession  at  or  a  short 
time  before  the  epoch  of  the  discovery. 

The  Antis  or  Campas,  who  perhaps  occupy  the 
original  home  of  the  stock,  own  as  the  centre  of  their 
domain  the  table-land  known  as  El  Gran  Pajonal,  or 
the  Great  Grass  Field,  bounded  by  the  rivers  Ucayali, 
Pachitea  and  Perene.  Their  hue  is  a  bistre  and  their 
habits  wild  ;  some  slight  tillage  is  carried  on,  and  the 
women  spin  and  weave  the  wild  cotton  into  coarse 
garments.  The  taming  of  animals  is  one  of  their  arts, 
and  around  their  huts  are  seen  monkeys,  parrots,  pec- 
caries and  tapirs.*  It  is  noteworthy  that  some  of 
them  are  skilful  blacksmiths,  smelting  the  metal 

*  Olivier  Ordinaire,  "  Les  Sauvages  du  Perou,"  iu  Revue  d* Eth- 
nographic, 1887,  p.  282. 


THE  ARAWAK  STOCK.  243 

from  the  native  ores,  and  working  it  into  axes, 
knives,  spear  points,  etc.,  of  excellent  quality.* 

The  names  Campas  and  Antis  were  used  as  generic 
terms,  the  latter  applied  to  the  tribes  on  the  slopes  of 
the  Cordilleras  and  the  former  to  those  on  the  plains. 
A  large  number  of  sub-tribes  are  named  by  the  older 
writers,  the  principal  of  which  were  the  Choseosos, 
Machigangas,  Pilcosumis  and  Sepaunabos.  The  Ma- 
chigangas  lived  on  the  Pilcopata  and  Vilcanota,  and 
their  language  has  been  erroneously  stated  by  Von 
Tschudi  to  be  an  independent  stock.f  The  Chunchas 
and  Cholones  are  by  some  classed  with  the  Campas, 
and  they  are  said  to  have  been  the  possessors  of  the 
famous  Cerro  de  Sal,  or  Salt  Mountain,  to  which  the 
neighboring  tribes  repaired  in  great  numbers  to  ob- 
tain supplies  of  this  useful  article. 

The  Guanas  are  a  nation  who  have  long  lived  on 
the  upper  Paraguay,  in  the  province  Mato  Grosso 
on  the  river  Mambaya,  and  vicinity.  D'Orbigny  be- 
lieved  that  they  were  a  member  of  the  Mataco  group, ^ 
but  they  are  now  recognized  as  belonging  to  the 
Arawak  stock.  They  are  noteworthy  for  their  peace- 
ful disposition  and  unusual  intelligence.  Hervas 
speaks  of  them  as  the  most  able  nation  visited  by  the 
missionaries  in  the  whole  of  America.§  The  traveler 

*  C.  Greiffenstein,  in  Zeitschrift  fur  Ethnologic,  1878,  s.  137. 

t  Von  Tschudi,  Organismus  der  Kechua  Sprache,  p.  67.  For 
other  members  of  the  Campas  see  Hervas,  Catalogo  de  las  Lenguas 
Conocidas,  Tom.  I.,  p.  262  ;  Amich,  Compendia  Historico  de  la  Ser- 
afica  Religion,  p.  35,  and  Scottish  Geog.  Journal,  Feb.,  1890. 

\  D'Orbigny,  L'Homme  Americain,  Tom.  II.,  p.  104,  note. 

$  "  Ivos  Guanas  son  la  mejor  nacion  de  las  barbaras  hasta  ahora 
descubiertas  en  America. ' '  Hervas,  Catalogo  de  las  Lenguas  Cono- 
cidas, Tom.  I.,  p.  189. 


244  THE   AMERICAN    RACE. 

Castelnau  confirmed  this  good  opinion.  He  found 
them  living  in  neat  houses  and  cultivating  the  land 
with  skill  and  industry.  They  raised  not  only  the 
ordinary  food  plants,  but  cotton  and  sugar  cane, 
pressing  the  sap  from  the  latter  by  machinery  of  their 
own  devising,  and  moulding  the  sugar  into  loaves. 
Their  cotton  cloth,  died  of  various  colors,  was  highly 
esteemed  for  its  texture. 

Castelnau  describes  them  as  occupying  four  settle- 
ments near  Albuquerque  and  Miranda,  and  compris- 
ing the  Chualas  or  Guanas  proper,  the  Terenos,  the 
Laianas,  and  the  Quiniquinaos.*  Later  investigations 
have  shown  that  of  these  the  Terenos  and  Quiniqui- 
naos are  members  of  the  Guaycuru  stock  of  the  Chaco, 
and  that  the  Chualas  and  Laianas  alone  belong  to  the 
true  Guanas.f 

The  Paiconecas  or  Paunacas  were  attached  to  the 
mission  of  the  Conception  in  Bolivia,  in  16°  south  lat- 
itude. They  numbered  about  500  in  1831.  In  cus- 
toms and  appearance  they  approached  the  Chiquitos. 
Their  former  home  was  between  the  sources  of  the 
Rio  Blanco  and  Rio  Verde. 

The  Saravecas,  three  or  four  hundred  in  number  in 
1831,  were  attached  to  the  mission  of  Santa  Anna,  in 
Bolivia,  and  were  its  handsomest  members.  Their 
former  homes  were  in  the  eastern  hills  of  the  Cordil- 
lera, about  16°  south  latitude. 

Although  these  are  classed  as  irreducible  stocks 
by  D'Orbigny  and  others  who  have  followed  him, 

*  Expedition  dans  V  Amerique  du  Sud,  Tome  II.,  p.  480. 
f  Compte-Rendu  du  Cong.  Internal,  des  Americanisiest  1888,  p. 
510. 


THE  ARAWAK  STOCK.  245 

they  are  both  clearly  branches  of  the  Arawak  stem, 
as  will  be  seen  by  a  brief  comparison.* 

PAICONECA.  SARAVECA.  ARAWAK  STOCK. 

Sun,  isese,  caame,  sese,  catnu, 

Moon,  kejere,  cache,  kejeres,  kashi. 

Fire,  chaki,  tikai,  yaki,  ikii. 

Water,  ina,  une,  inet  une. 

Eye,  ihuikis,  not,  nohlo,  ikise. 

Others  could  readily  be  added,  but  the  above  are 
sufficient. 

Another  important  tribe  of  this  stock  in  this  region 
were  the  Piros,  otherwise  called  Chuntaquiros  and 
Simirenchis,  whose  home  was  about  the  junction  of 
the  Ucayali  and  Apurimac,  and  thence  along  both 
these  rivers.  The  vocabularies  of  their  tongue  OD- 

D 

tained  by  Castelnau  and  Paul  Marcoy  leave  no  doubt 
of  their  affiliations.  They  were  largely  converted  by 
the  Jesuits  between  1683  and  1727. 

The  Wapisianas,  or  Wapianas  in  British  Guiana, 
with  their  sub-tribe  the  Atorai  (Tauri  or  Dauri),  are 
stated  by  Im  Thurn  to  speak  a  tongue  wholly  differ- 
ent from  the  Arawak  ;  but  an  analysis  of  its  expression 
and  an  extended  comparison  place  it  beyond  doubt  in 
this  stock.f 

The   Tarumas  and    Maopityans,   who   now  live  in 

*  The  words  from  the  Paiconeca  and  Saraveca  are  from  D'Or- 
bigny,  L'Homme  Americain,  Tome  I.,  p.  165  ;  those  from  the  Ara- 
wak stock  from  the  table  in  Von  den  Steinen,  Durch  Central-Bra- 
silien,  s.  294. 

flm  Thurn,  Among  the  Indians  of  Guiana,  p.  165.  Comp. 
Von  den  Steinen,  Durch  Central  Brasilien,  ss.  295,  307. 


THE  AMERICAN   RACE. 


southern  British  Guiana,  but  are  said  to  have  origi- 
nally come  from  the  Rio  Negro,  speak  related  dialects. 
They  enjoy  a  rather  high  degree  of  culture,  being 
celebrated  for  the  manufacture  of  cassava  graters,  for 
the  hunting  dogs  which  they  breed  and  train,  and  for 
the  fine  pottery  they  manufacture.  Both  Schomburgk 
and  Im  Thurn  regard  them  as  an  independent  stock; 
but  from  a  comparison  of  the  fifteen  nouns  given  by 
the  former  in  their  language,*  I  infer  that  they  are 
an  Arawak  tribe,  speaking  a  dialect  mixed  with  some 
Carib  and  Tupi  words,  and  with  frequent  vowel 
elision. 

TARUMA. 

(auvan-ialu,  Paravilhana) . 
(pia,  Baniva,  piua,  Ouaye'oue'). 
(hua-to,  Carib). 
(fund,   Carib). 
(no-totia,  Bard). 
(a-kussi,  Arawak). 
{ulle-rukuhu,  Arawak). 
(issi-rihi,  Arawak). 
(kx-aua,  Bakairi). 
(upu,  Galibi). 
(takou,  Carib.) 
(uinari,  Bard). 

This  comparison  leaves  little  doubt  but  that  this 
mixed  dialect  is  chiefly  of  Arawak  lineage. 

The  Arawaks  wandered  as  far  east  as  the  upper 
Schingu  river,  where  Von  den  Steinen  found  the 
Kustenau,  a  distant  member  of  the  stem,  with  various 

*  Sir  Robert  H.  Schomburgk,  in  Report  of  the  Brit.  Assoc.  for 
the  Adv.  of  Science,  1848,  pp.  96-98.  See  also  Im  Thurn,  u.  s.,  pp. 
163,  272  ;  Martius,  Ethnographic,  Bd.  I.,  s.  683. 


Sun, 

ouang, 

Moon, 

piwa, 

Fire, 

hua} 

Water, 

tza, 

Head,  my, 

a-tta, 

Eye,  my, 

a-tzi, 

Mouth, 

me-ruku-kanna, 

Nose, 

assa, 

Hand, 

ahu, 

Foot, 

appa, 

Bow, 

tzeika, 

Star, 

uingra, 

THE  ARAWAK  STOCK.  247 

minor  tribes,  as  the  Vauras,  Mehinacus,  etc.  Along 
the  river  Ventuari  the  populous  tribe  of  the  Maipures 
have  taken  a  conspicuous  place  in  the  annals  of  the 
missions.  Indeed,  the  whole  stock  is  sometimes  called 
by  their  name ;  *  but  it  is  well  to  retain  the  better  known 
Arawak,  which  is  the  appellation  of  that  portion  of 
the  tribe  in  Guiana  between  the  Corentin  and  Pomeroon 
rivers.  It  means  "  meal-eaters,"  and  was  first  ap- 
plied to  them  in  derision  on  account  of  their  large 
consumption  of  cassava  bread. 

There  is  a  prevailing  similarity  in  their  physical 
type.  The  adults  are  slightly  undersized,  rarely 
reaching  above  five  feet  six  inches,  with  low  foreheads 
and  straight  narrow  noses.  The  form  of  the  skull  is 
short  and  the  jaws  are  not  protruding — orthognathic 
and  brachycephalic.f  The  physical  force  averages 
less  than  that  of  the  European,  and  there  is  decidedly 
less  power  of  resisting  disease.^  The  Jesuit  Eder  men- 
tions a  peculiarity  among  the  Peruvian  Arawaks, 
(Moxos,  Baures).  It  is  that  the  end  of  the  little  fin- 
ger does  not  reach  to  the  last  joint  of  the  third  finger. 
The  absence  of  this  peculiarity  he  states  will  reveal  a 
mixture  of  Spanish  blood  to  the  third  generation. § 

*  Lucien  Adam,  Compte-Rendu  du  Congres  Internal.  d'Ameri- 
canistes,  1888,  p.  492. 

t  "  All  the  numerous  branches  of  this  stem,"  says  Virchow, 
"present  the  same  type  of  skull."  Zeitschrift  fur  Ethnologic, 
1886,  s.  695. 

J  Everard  F.  im  Thurn,  Among  the  Indians  of  Guiana,  p.  189. 
(London,  1883.) 

I  F.  X.  Eder,  Descriptio  Provintice  Moxitarum,  p.  217.  (Budae, 
1791. )  Dr.  Washington  Matthews  has  kindly  made  for  me  a  num- 
ber of  observations  upon  Navajo  Indians  with  reference  to  this  an- 
atomical peculiarity.  It  is  not  markedly  present  among  them. 


248  THE  AMERICAN   RACE. 

It  would  be  interesting  to  learn  how  widely  this  is 
noticeable. 

The  culture  of  the  Arawak  stock  was  generally 
somewhat  above  the  stage  of  savagery.  On  the  West 
Indian  islands  Columbus  found  them  cultivating 
maize,  potatoes,  manioc,  yams  and  cotton.  They 
were  the  first  to  introduce  to  Europeans  the  wondrous 
art  of  tobacco  smoking.  They  wove  cotton  into  gar- 
ments, and  were  skilful  in  polishing  stone.  They 
hammered  the  native  gold  into  ornaments,  carved 
curious  masks  of  wood,  blocked  rude  idols  out  of 
large  stones,  and  hollowed  the  trunks  of  trees  to 
construct  what  they  called  canoes. 

Such  is  approximately  the  culture  of  the  existing 
tribes  of  the  stock.  The  Arawaks  of  Guiana  also  raise 
cassava  and  maize,  though  they  depend  largely  on 
hunting  and  fishing.  Like  the  northern  tribes,  they 
have  well-developed  gentile  or  totemic  systems,  with 
descent  in  the  female  line.*  Marriages  are  by  pur- 
chase, and  the  strange  custom  of  the  convade  obtains  ; 
that  is,  at  the  period  of  parturition  the  husband  takes 
to  his  hammock,  and  is  waited  on  as  if  he  was  the  sick 
one.  Their  houses  are  usually  single,  not  communal, 
and  are  furnished  with  swinging  hammocks,  mats, 
basket-work  and  pottery. 

The  Haytian  mythology  was  quite  extensive,  and 
the  legends  of  the  Arawaks  of  Guiana  have  been  col- 
lected, and  are  also  rich.  In  all  the  tribes  the  dead 
were  generally  buried,  and  often  the  house  of  the  de- 
ceased was  destroyed  or  the  spot  deserted. 

*  For  particulars  see  Im  Thurn,  ubi  supra,  Chap.  VII. 


THE   ARAWAKS.  249 


ARAWAK  LINGUISTIC  STOCK. 
Amarapas,  in  British  Guiana. 
Antis  or  Campas,  on  Rio  Apurimac. 
Araicus,  on  Rio  Jatahy. 
Arawaks,  on  coast  of  Guiana. 
Atorais,  on  the  upper  Essequibo. 
Banivas,  on  Rio  Atahuapo  and  Rio  l£auna. 
Barts,  on  Rio  Negro. 
Baures,  on  Rio  de  los  Baures. 
Campas,  see  Antis. 
Canamirim,  on  Rio  Jurua. 
Cariayos,  on  Rio  Negro. 
Cauixanas,  on  Rio  Jupura. 
Chontaquiros,  see/Yrar. 
Goajiros,  on  Goajiro  peninsula. 
Guanas,  on  Rio  Paraguay. 
Guinaus,  on  upper  Orinoco. 
Haitians,  on  island  of  Hayti. 
Jabaanas,  on  Rio  Marauia. 
Jucunas,  on  Rio  Jupura. 
Jumanas,  near  Rio  Jupura. 
Juris,  on  Rio  Solimoes. 
Knstenaus,  on  Rio  Schingu. 
Manaos,  near  Rio  Negro. 
Manatenerys,  on  Rio  Purus. 
Manivas,  see  Banivas. 
Maipures,  on  Rios  Ventuari  and  Orinoco.  ' 
Maranhos,  on  Rio  Jatahy. 
Mariates,  on  Rio  Iza. 
Mawakwas,  on  upper  Orinoco. 
Moxos,  on  head-waters  of  Rio  Mamore. 
Paiconecas,  on  Rio  Blanco. 
Pareni,  on  Rio  Orinoco. 
Parisis,  in  province  Mato  Grosso. 
Passes,  on  lower  Jupura. 
Piapocos,  on  Rio  Guaviare. 
Piros,  on  Rio  Ucayali. 
Saravecas,  near  Santa  Ana,  Bolivia. 
Simirencis,  see  Piros. 
Tainos,  see  Haitians. 


25O  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

Tarianas,  on  Rio  Negro. 

Tarumas,  in  British  and  Dutch  Guiana. 

Uainambeus,  on  Rio  Jupura. 

Uainumas,  on  Rio  Jupura. 

Uirinas,  on  Rio  Marari. 

Wapisianas,  in  Guiana. 

West  Indians,  on  Bahamas  and  Antilles. 

Yuris,  see  Juris. 

The  Bar£s  are  now  found  along  the  banks  of  the 
Casaquiare  and  the  Guainia,  the  Felipe,  the  Atabapo 
and  some  portions  of  the  Rio  Negro.  They  belong 
to  the  Arawak  stock,  their  dialect  being  related  to 
those  of  the  Banivas  and  Maipures.  About  the  mid- 
dle of  this  century  the  traveller  Richard  Spruce  found 
them  in  the  regions  assigned  by  Gilii  to  other  tribes, 
indicating  a  displacement  of  the  population.  He  col- 
lected a  number  of  vocabularies,  offering  sufficient 
evidence  in  his  opinion  to  establish  the  relationship 
of  the  following  bands  :  * 

BARI5  FAMII/VT  OF  THE  ARAWAK  STOCK. 

Harts,  or  Barrts,  on  Rio  Negro,  etc. 
Cunipusanas,  on  Rio  Casaquiare. 
Guariquenas,  on  Rio  Casaquiare. 
Jabaanas,  on  Rio  Pacimoni. 
Mandauacas,  on  Rio  Casaquiare  and  Siapa. 
Masacas,  on  Rio  Masaca  and  Siapa. 
Pacimonarias,  on  Rio  Casaquiare. 
Tarianas,  on  Rio  Yupura. 

To  these  I  would  add  the  Uirinas  of  the  Rio 
Marari,  on  the  strength  of  a  vocabulary  collected  by 
Natterer. 

*  Von  Martius,  Ethnographic  und  Sprachenkunde  Amerikas, 
Bd.  I.,  s.  625-626. 


THE  CARIB   STOCK.  2$  I 

4.     The  Caribs. 

The  Carib  stock  is  one  of  the  most  extensively  dis- 
tributed in  the  southern  continent.  At  the  discovery 
its  dialects  were  found  on  the  Lesser  Antilles,  the 
Caribby  Islands,  and  on  the  mainland  from  the  mouth 
of  the  Essequibo  River  to  the  Gulf  of  Maracaibo. 
West  of  the  latter  it  did  not  reach  the  coast,  nor  has 
any  positive  traces  of  its  introduction  above  the  straits 
of  Panama  earlier  than  the  conquest  been  found,  in 
spite  of  frequent  assertions  to  the  contrary.  Inland 
from  the  Aravvaks  on  the  shore  of  Guiana  are  a  num- 
ber of  Carib  tribes,  as  the  Macusi  and  Wapiana,  so 
numerous  that  this  region  has  been  thought  by  some 
to  have  been  the  original  home  of  the  stock ;  but  the 
discovery  by  Dr.  Karl  von  den  Steinen  of  a  tribe,  the 
Bakairi,  on  the  head-waters  of  the  Schingu  River, 
speaking  a  very  pure  form  of  the  language,*  and  the 
recognition  of  the  Carib  affinities  of  the  Palmellas  on 
the  Rio  dos  Baures,  throw  another  light  on  the  trend 
of  Carib  migrations,  strongly  supported  by  a  series  of 
other  considerations.  Thus,  it  has  been  satisfactorily 
shown  by  Im  Thurn  that  the  Caribs  in  Guiana  wan- 
dered thither  from  the  Orinoco  district,  some  inland 
and  some  along  the  coast,  and  probably  from  the 
large  islands  adjacent  to  the  coasts.f 

These  islands  in  turn  were  peopled  from  the  main- 
land to  the  east,  as  I  have  already  shown,  their  earlier 
population  having  been  Arawak.  All  the  Island, 
Orinoco  and  Guiana  Caribs  can  thus  be  traced  back 

*  Karl  von  den  Steinen,  Durch  Central-Brasilien,  Cap.  XXI., 
"  Die  Heimat  der  Karibeu." 
f  Im  Thurn,  Among  the  Indians  of  Guiana,  p.  171-3. 


2$2  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

to  the  mainland  of  northern  Venezuela.  In  this 
vicinity  was  spoken  the  Cumanagoto  dialect,  in  the 
province  of  Cumana  or  New  Andalusia.  According 
to  the  early  missionaries,  it  was  current  along  the 
coast  for  more  than  a  hundred  leagues,  extending  into 
the  province  of  Caracas  and  beyond.  The  tribes  who 
spoke  it  were  the  Chaymas,  the  Cores,  the  Cumanas, 
the  Quacas,  the  Farias,  the  Palenques,  the  Varri- 
gones,  and  others.*  Other  dialects  to  the  west  are  the 
Opone  and  Carare,  specimens  of  which  were  obtained 
by  Lengerke  in  the  vicinity  of  Bucaramanga,  pro- 
vince of  Santander.f 

The  sierra  which  divides  the  head-waters  of  the 
Caura  from  those  of  the  Rio  Branco  and  other  streams 
flowing  into  the  Rio  Negro  and  Amazon,  are  peopled 
on  both  slopes  by  wandering  tribes  of  the  Carib  stock. 
Near  the  sources  of  the  Caura,  Chaffanjon  found  the 
once  formidable  Guaharibos,  now  naked  and  wretched 
fugitives,  fearing  the  white  far  more  than  they  are 
feared  by  him.ij:  On  the  southern  slope,  along  the 
Rio  Jauapery  and  neighboring  streams,  are  bands 
of  Crichanas,  Ipurucotos  (Purigotos),  Macuchis,  and 
Jauamerys  (Waimiris),  all  speaking  nearly  related 
dialects  of  the  Carib  tongue.  Dr.  Barboza  Rodrigues 
has  given  a  touching  picture  of  their  recent  struggles 
with  the  whites  of  the  adjacent  settlements,  and  the 
miserable  condition  to  which  they  are  reduced.  We 

*  See  Francisco  de  Tauste,  Arte,  Bocabulario,  y  Catecismo  de  la 
Lengua  de  Cumana,  p.  i  (Ed.  Julius  Platzmann). 

fThey  are  printed  in  the  Berlin  Zeitschrift fur  Ethnologic,  1878. 
%  Chaffanjon,  L'Orenoquc  ct  le  Caura,  p.  308  (Paris,  1889). 


THE   CARIB   STOCK.  253 

owe  to  the  same  sympathetic  naturalist  an  interesting 
description  of  their  customs  and  language.* 

The  hill  tribes  of  French  Guiana  are  known  as 
Roucouyennes,  from  the  roucou,  a  vegetable  color- 
ing matter  with  which  they  paint  their  skins.  They 
exhale  a  peculiar  odor  like  that  of  new  leather,  prob- 
ably from  the  action  of  the  tannin  in  the  roucou  on 
the  skin.  Naturally  they  are  light  in  color,  and  at 
birth  almost  white. f  Marriages  of  father  and  daugh- 
ter, or  brother  and  sister,  are  not  rare  among  them4 

A  connecting  link  between  these  Caribs  of  Guiana 
and  the  Bakairis  of  the  south  is  supplied  by  the 
Apiacas  of  the  Rio  Tocantins,  who  speak  a  pure 
dialect  of  the  stock,  midway  in  character  between 
those  of  the  two  extremes  named. § 

The  Arubas,  who  occupied  the  island  of  that  name 
off  the  coast  of  Venezuela,  and  whose  mixed  descend- 
ants now  speak  the  Papamiento  jargon,  are  no  doubt 
correctly  assigned  to  this  stock  by  M.  Pinart.  They 
were  skillful  potters,  and  buried  their  dead  in  large 

*  Joao  Barboza  Rodrigues,  Pacificafdo  dos  Crichanas,  (Rio  de 
Janeiro,  1885).  Dr.  Rodrigues  was  Director  of  the  Botanical  Mu- 
seum of  the  Amazons.  His  work  contains  careful  vocabularies  of 
over  700  words  in  the  Macuchi,  Ipurucoto  and  Crichana  dialects. 
His  journeys  to  the  Rio  Jauapery  were  undertaken  chiefly  from  phil- 
anthropic motives,  which  unfortunately  did  not  bear  the  fruit  they 
merited. 

t  "  D'un  blanc  presque  pur."  Dr.  J.  Crevaux,  Voyages  dans 
PAmMque  du  Slid,  p.  in  (Paris,  1883). 

\  Dr.  Crevaux,  Ibid.,  p.  304. 

?  See  Dr.  Paul  Ehrenreich,  in  the  Verhandlungen  der  Berliner 
Anthrop.  Gesell.,  1888,  p.  549.  These  are  not  to  be  confounded 
with  the  Apiacas  of  the  Rio  Arinos,  who  are  of  Tupi  stock.  The 
word  apiaca  or  apijiba  in  Tupi  means  simply  "  men." 


254  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

urns.  The  numerous  polychromatic  petroglyphs  they 
have  left  and  their  peculiar  character  are  especially 
noteworthy.* 

Sir  Robert  H.  Schomburgk  classifies  the  Carib 
stock  in  Guiana  as  follows,  giving  a  short  specimen 
of  each  dialect,  which  differ,  he  says,  among  them- 
selves about  as  much  as  French  and  Italian. f 

CARIB    SUB-STOCK    IN  GUIANA. 

Accawai.  Mazvakwa. 

Arecuna.  Pianochotto. 

Caribisi,  Soerigong. 

Guianau.  Tiverighotto. 

Macusi.  Waiyamara. 

Maiongkong.  Woyawoi. 

The  Guaques,  who  live  on  the  head-waters  of  the 
Caqueta  or  Yapura  river,  have  not  been  heretofore 
identified  as  Caribs;  but  their  dialect,  as  collected  by 
Presbyter  Mannel  P.  Albis  in  1853,  leaves  no  doubt  as 
to  its  relationship.  He  describes  them  as  intelligent 
and  kindly,  but  incorrigible  and  dexterous  thieves, 
skillful  in  the  collection  of  wax  and  the  preparation 
of  poisons.  Nowhere  is  the  couvade  with  its  associate 
superstitions  more  rigidly  observed.  No  woman  must 
be  seen  by  men  during  her  catamenia,  and  at  child- 
birth she  must  separate  from  the  household  for  three 
months.  During  all  that  time  her  husband  strictly 
observes  a  diet  and  seclusion. :{: 

*  A.  S.  Pinart,  Aperfu  sur  d'ile  d'Aruba,  ses  Habitants,  ses  An- 
tiquites,  ses  Pctroglyphes  (folio,  Paris,  1890;. 
t  Report  of  the  Brit.  Assoc.for  the  Adv.  of  Science,  1848,  p.  96. 
%  Bulletin  of  the  Amer.  Ethnolog.  Society,  Vol.  I.,  p.  59. 


THE   CARIB   STOCK.  255 

The  lower  Orinoco  basin  was  for  a  long  time  the 
center  of  distribution  of  the  stock ;  they  probably  had 
driven  from  it  nations  of  Arawak  lineage,  some  of 
whom,  as  the  Goajiros,  they  pushed  to  the  west, 
where  they  were  in  contact  with  the  Carib  Motilones,* 
and  others  to  the  islands  and  the  shores  to  the  east. 
The  Carijonas  and  Guaques  on  the  head-waters  of  the 
Yapura  or  Caqueta  are  now  their  most  western  hordes, 
and  the  Pimenteras  on  the  Rio  Paruahyba  are  their 
most  eastern.  We  can  thus  trace  their  scattered 
bands  over  thirty-five  degrees  of  latitude  and  thirty  of 
longitude.  The  earliest  center  of  distribution  which 
best  satisfies  all  the  conditions  of  the  problem  would 
be  located  in  the  Bolivian  highlands,  not  remote  from 
that  I  have  assigned  to  the  Arawaks. 

The  physical  features  of  the  Caribs  assimilate 
closely  to  those  of  the  Arawaks.  They  are  taller  in 
the  average  and  more  vigorous,  but  their  skulls  are 
equally  brachycephalic  and  orthognathic.  They  are 
beardless,  and  have  the  same  variability  in  color  of 
skin.  As  good  specimens  of  the  modern  Caribs  we 
may  take  the  tribes  of  Venezuela.  These  are  spoken 
of  as  "  the  strongest,  handsomest  and  most  intelligent 
of  any  of  the  natives  in  northern  South  America."f 
They  are  tall,  straight  and  symmetrical,  the  women 
not  less  muscular  than  the  men.  The  hair  is  some- 
times slightly  wavy,  as  Von  den  Steinen  saw  among 
the  Bakairi. 

*  The  identification  of  the  Motilones  as  Caribs  we  owe  to  Dr. 
Ernst,  Zeitschrift  fiir  Ethnologic,  1887,  s.  296. 

t  "La  mas  bella,  la  mas  robusta  y  la  mas  intelligente,"  etc- 
F.  Michelena  y  Rojas,  Exploration  Official  de  la  America  del  Sur, 
p.  54  (Brusselas,  1867). 


256  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

The  Caribs  have  had  a  bad  reputation  as  to  culture 
on  account  of  their  anthropophagous  tendencies. 
Indeed,  the  word  cannibal  is  a  mispronunciation  of 
their  proper  name,  Karina.  But  they  were  quite  on 
a  par  with  their  neighbors,  the  Arawaks,  and  in  some 
respects  superior  to  them.  For  instance,  their  canoes 
were  larger  and  finer,  and  they  had  invented  the  de- 
vice of  the  sail,  which  seems  to  have  been  unknown 
to  all  the  other  tribes  on  the  continent.  To  some  ex- 
tent they  were  agricultural,  and  their  pottery  was  of 
superior  quality. 

The  beginnings  of  picture-writing  were  in  use 
among  them,  and  the  remarkable  rock  inscriptions 
still  visible  on  the  Orinoco  and  the  Essiquibo  are  at- 
tributable to  them,  and  were  probably  intended  as 
conjurations  to  the  supernatural  powers,  similar  to 
others  which  remain  in  St.  Vincent  and  other  islands 
from  the  date  of  the  Carib  occupation.*  Their  family 
life  was  not  usually  communal,  but  each  household 
occupied  its  own  dwelling.  In  some  parts,  as  in  the 
deltas  of  the  Essiquibo  and  Orinoco,  and  even  on  the 
dry  savannas,  their  huts  were  built  on  a  substructure 
of  piles  which  lifted  them  five  or  six  feet  from  the 
ground  or  the  water,  as  the  case  might  be. 

The  religious  rites  they  observed  were  often  elabo- 
rate. Their  principal  divinities  are  said  to  have  been 
the  sun,  moon  and  earth,  the  latter  of  which  was 
spoken  of  as  the  mother  of  the  race.  They  practiced 
the  couvadcy  and  their  priests,  called  piaye,  exercised 
unlimited  power,  and  were  correspondingly  feared. 

*  See  D.  G.  Brinton,  "  On  a  Petroglyph  from  the  Island  of  St. 
Vincent,"  in  Proceedings  of  the  Acad.  of  Nat.  Sciences  of  Phila- 
delphia, 1889,  p.  417. 


THE   CARIB   STOCK.  257 

It  was  the  opinion  of  Von  Martius  that  the  Carib, 
the  Tupi-Guarani  and  the  Aravvak  stocks  are  trace- 
able to  some  very  ancient  common  tongue.  This 
view  is  at  first  sight  strengthened  by  a  wide  compari- 
son of  vocabularies,  but  is  weakened  by  an  examina- 
tion of  the  grammars  of  the  three  families,  especially 
their  pronominal  elements.  It  is  probable  that  the 
three  ancestral  tribes  had  early  and  close  communica- 
tion, but  not  original  identity. 

The  seeming  relationship  has  been  rendered  more 
prominent  in  certain  instances  by  free  later  borrow- 
ings. M.  Adam  has  shown  that  some  of  the  northern 
dialects  are  in  the  condition  of  jargons,  their  gram- 
mar on  the  Carib  model,  their  words  drawn  from 
various  stocks.  Such  are  the  "  Island  Carib,"  which 
is  largely  Arawak,  and  the  Boni-Ouyana,  described  by 
Dr.  Crevaux.* 

CARIB  LINGUISTIC  STOCK. 

Akavais,  or  Accowoios,  in  southern  British  Guiana. 

Apalais,  on  the  lower  Paru. 

Apiacas,  on  the  lower  Tocantins. 

Arecunas,  on  Rio  Branco. 

Aricoris>  see  Yaos. 

Bakairis,  on  the  Upper  Schingu. 

Caribisis,  in  Guiana. 

Carijonas,  head-waters  of  the  Caqueta. 

Cariniacos,  on  lower  Orinoco. 

Chaimas,  in  ancient  province  of  Cutnana. 

Cumanagotos,  in  ancient  province  of  Cumana. 

Galibis,  in  French  Guiana. 

Guaques,  on  the  upper  Caqueta. 

*  Also  the  Ouaye'oue',  of  which  a  short  vocabulary  is  given  by  M. 
Coudreau  in  the  Archives  de  la  Socittt  Americaine  de  France,  1886. 
17 


THE    AMERICAN    RACE. 

Guaharibos,  on  the  upper  Caura. 
Guayqueris,  in  province  of  Cuinana. 
Jauamerys,  on  Rio  Jauapery. 
Macusis,  on  Rio  Negro. 
Maqueritaris,  on  Rio  Branco. 
Motilones,  near  R.  Zulia  in  Venezuela. 
Palmellas,  on  Rio  Paruahyba. 
Paramonas,  sub-tribe  of  Akavais. 
Pianagotos,  on  Rio  Branco. 
Paravilhanas,  on  Rio  Branco. 
Pimenteiras,  on  Rio  Paruahyba. 
Purigotos,  on  Rio  Jauapery. 
Rocotiyennes,  in  French  Guiana. 
Tamanacas,  on  Rio  Cuccivero. 
Tiverigotos,  on  Rio  Branco. 
Trios,  on  upper  Corentyn. 
VaiyamaraS)  on  Rio  Branco. 
Voyavais,  on  Rio  Branco.  v. 

Yaos,  in  Guiana. 

Zurumutas,  sub-tribe  of  Macusis. 
(The  Orinoco  sub-stock  will  be  described  later.) 

5.   The  Cariris. 

In  his  enumeration  of  the  tribes  of  Central  Brazil, 
Von  Martius  brings  together  a  large  number  who 
once  dwelt  in  the  provinces  of  Bahia  and  Pernam- 
buco,  under  the  general  title,  "  the  Guck  or  Coco 
stem,"  so  called  from  the  word  which  in  many  of 
them  means  "  the  paternal  uncle."  *  This  division 
has  not  been  endorsed  by  later  research,  and  it  is 
evident  that  Von  Martius  included  several  quite  dif- 
ferent stocks  under  this  appellation. 

Among  these,  the  most  prominent  were  the  Cariris 
or  Kiriri.  They  are  now  reduced  to  about  600  souls, 

*  Martius,  Ethnographic,  Bd.  I.,  s.  346,  sq.  The  word  may  mean 
either  maternal  or  paternal  uncle,  V.  d.  Steinen,  s.  292. 


BRAZILIAN   TRIBES  259 

but  at  one  time  were  a  powerful  nation,  and  in  1699 
the  Jesuit  Mamiani  published  a  grammar  and  other 
works  in  their  tongue.*  They  were  among  the  more 
cultivated  of  the  Brazilian  tribes,  given  to  agricul- 
ture, skilled  in  dyeing  and  weaving  cotton,  employ- 
ing a  primitive  spindle  and  loom,  with  weapons  of 
several  kinds  and  of  superior  finish. 

The  Sabuyas,  who  dwell  near  them,  speak  a  closely 
related  dialect  ;  but  further  affinities  have  not  been 
verified.  They  have,  indeed,  many  loan  words  from 
the  Tupi,  and  some  from  the  Carib  stock,  but  the 
ground-work  of  these  tongues  is  different.  Von  den 
Steinen  offers  some  reasons  for  believing  that  they 
moved  down  the  Amazon  from  a  far  western  resi- 
dence.f 

6.   The  Coroados,  Carajas  ana  others. 

The  Coroados  derive  their  name  from  the  Portu- 
guese word  coroa,  a  crown,  the  term  "  crowned  " 
being  applied  to  several  native  tribes  who  wore  their 
hair  in  a  peculiar  manner.  It  is  not  at  all  an  ethnic 
designation,  and  I  use  it  to  bring  into  relief  the 
need  of  some  term  of  greater  precision.  Thus,  there 
are  the  Coroados  who  are  neighbors  and  linguistically 
related  to  the  Puris,  dwelling  on  the  Parahyba  river. 
By  some  they  have  been  included  among  the  Tapuyas 

*  Luiz  Vincencio  Mamiani,  Arte  de  la  Lingua  Kiriri,  and  his 
Catechismo  na  Lingua  da  nctfao  Kiriri.  The  former  has  been  re- 
published  (1877),  and  also  translated  into  German  by  Von  der 
Gabelentz  (1852). 

t  Durch  Central- Brasilien,  s.  303.  This  writer  looks  upon  the 
Cariris  as  a  remote  off -shoot  from  the  Carib  stock. 


260  THE  AMERICAN   RACE. 

as  alleged  relatives  of  the  Botocudos.  But  not  only 
is  there  no  relationship  of  language,  but  physically 
they  are  widely  apart.  The  Puris-Coroados  are  a 
dark  yellow  brown,  with  mesocephalic  heads,  dark 
brown  oblique  eyes,  large  mouths  and  thick  lips — 
nowise  the  type  of  the  Botocudo.  They  are  moreover 
agricultural  in  habits,  and  farther  advanced  in  the 
arts.* 

There  are  other  Coroados  in  the  extreme  south  of 
Brazil,  in  the  province  of  Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  whither 
they  are  said  to  have  wandered  from  the  north. 
These  do  not  appear  to  be  Botocudos  either.  They 
have  round  heads,  dark  brown  eyes,  low  foreheads, 
and  are  of  a  light  coffee  color.  They  are  noticeable 
for  their  clean  and  ornamental  huts,  and  for  their 
skill  in  hunting,  in  which  they  employ  arrows  five 
feet  in  length,  with  bone  points.  They  pray  to  cer- 
tain stars  as  protective  divinities,  and  like  some 
northern  tribes,  clean  and  preserve  the  bones  of  the 
dead.f 

The  Carajas  belong  to  a  stock  who  dwell  on  the 
affluents  of  the  river  Araguay,  in  the  province  of 
Goyas  in  southern  Brazil.  The  traveler  Castelnau  \ 
penetrated  to  them,  and  was  our  earliest  source  of  in- 
formation about  them.  They  are  wild  and  warlike, 
with  a  bad  reputation  among  their  neighbors.  ITe 

*See  Von  den  Steinen,  Durch  Central-Brasilien,  s.  320  ;  Paul 
Ehrenreich,  Zeitschrift  fur  Ethnologic,  1886,  s.  184. 

fReinhold  Hcnsel,  "  Die  Coroados  der  Provinz  Rio  Grande  do 
Sul,"  \x\.  Zeitschrift  fur  Ethnologic,  Bd.  II.,  s.  195. 

\  F.  de  Castelnau,  Expedition  dans  PAni&rique  du  Sud,  Tom.  I., 
p.  446. 


BRAZILIAN  TRIBES.  261 

was  told  they  had  no  religion  and  no  rites,  but  also 
that  they  were  strictly  monogamous  and  singularly 
firm  moralists,  punishing  libertinage  with  the  death 
of  both  parties ;  statements  which  do  not  accord. 
Their  method  of  burial  was  curious.  The  corpse 
was  interred  in  an  upright  position,  the  head  out  of 
the  ground.  An  ample  stock  of  bananas  and  other 
food  was  placed  near  it,  and  renewed  from  time  to 
time.  This  clearly  indicates  a  belief  in  life  after 
death.  The  pure  Carajas  are  markedly  dolichoceph- 
alic. 

The  Caraja  language  is  known  too  imperfectly  to 
permit  a  proper  study  of  its  relationship.  It  is  com- 
plex and  difficult,  and  spoken  differently  by  the  men 
and  the  women.  From  the  scant  material  at  hand  I 
perceive  lexical  relationship  in  some  important  words 
to  the  Tapuya  stock,*  but  a  wide  divergence  in 
phonetics  and  apparently  in  construction.  Its  mem- 
bers are  as  follows : 


*  For  instance  : 

CARAJA.  BOTOCUDO. 

Woman,  awkeu,  joku-nang. 

Sun,  tiou,  taru. 

Head,  w-oarat  curu. 

Tooth,  wa-djon,  yune. 

Hand,  wa-depo,  nipo. 

Fire,  eaotou,  pott. 

Dr.  Paul  Ehrenreich,  who  has  a  mass  of  unpublished  material 
about  the  Caraja  language,  says  it  is  wholly  unconnected  with  the 
Carib  group.  Verhandlungen  der  Berliner  Anthrop.  Gesell.,  1888, 
P-  548. 


262  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

CARAJA  LINGUISTIC  STOCK. 

Carajahis,  about  Salinas. 
Carajas,  on  the  Rio  Araguay. 

Chimbioas,  on  the  eastern  affluents  of  lower  Araguay. 
Javahais,  on  upper  Araguay  and  island  of  Banaual. 
Ximbioas,  see  Chimbioas. 

A  certain  number  of  vocabularies  have  been  ob- 
tained by  travelers  in  Brazil  from  mixed-blood 
tribes,  who  spoke  dialects  sometimes  compounded 
of  several  native  tongues,  sometimes  of  these  mingled 
with  Portuguese  or  negro  elements.  Such  is  the 
dialect  of  the  Meniens,  who  lived  in  eastern  Brazil 
near  the  Villa  Belmonte,  whose  speech  was  a  jargon 
of  the  Tapuya  and  negro  languages  ;  and  that  of  the 
Games  in  the  interior  of  San  Paulo,  who  also  made 
use  of  a  barbarous  dialect,  compounded  of  the  African 
idioms  of  runaway  slaves,  and  that  of  the  Botocudos. 
The  Catoquina,  a  specimen  of  which  was  obtained 
by  Spix  from  a  band  on  the  affluent  of  the  Jurua, 
and  the  Catoxa  or  Cotoxo  of  the  Rio  Parda,  are  other 
examples.* 

7.  The  Orinoco  Basin  ;  Carib  Sub-Stock ;  Salivas;  Ar- 
awak  Sub-Stock;  Otomacas ;  Guamas ;  Guayoas ; 
Garuoas ;  Guaraunos ;  Betoyas ;  Piaroas,  etc. 

The  Llanos  of  Venezuela  coincide  with  the  former 
"  Territory  of  Caqueta,"  and  embrace  a  region  about 
forty  thousand  square  miles  in  extent,  covered  either 
with  grass  and  rushes  or  with  dense  forests.  In  the 

*  Vocabularies  of  these  are  collected  by  Von  Martius  in  his  Eth- 
nographic und  Sprachenkunde  Amerikas,  Bd.  II.,  ss.  155,  156, 161, 
212,  etc. 


TRIBES   OF  THE   ORINOCO.  263 

wet  season  it  is  a  vast  marsh,  in  the  dry  it  is  scorched  by 
a  burning  sun,  raising  the  thermometer  daily  to  over 
100°  in  the  shade.  Yet  the  Llanos  are  but  a  part  of 
the  vast  upper  water-shed  of  the  northern  affluents  of 
the  Amazon  and  those  of  the  Orinoco,  which  together 

O 

drain  a  country  larger  than  the  whole  of  France. 

This  wide  expanse  is  thinly  populated  with  bands 
of  savages,  gaining  their  subsistence  chiefly  from  the 
rivers,  few  of  them  brought  within  the  range  of  civi- 
lized influences.  Linguistically  the  majority  belong 
to  the  Arawak  and  the  Carib  stocks  ;  but  there  are 
numbers  of  tribes  whose  affinities  are  uncertain,  or 
who  are  apparently  of  quite  another  lineage.  Scores 
of  names  are  found  in  the  records  of  the  missions  and 
on  the  pages  of  travelers,  of  peoples  who  have  disap- 
peared or  are  now  known  by  other  designations.  Alex- 
ander von  Humboldt  named  and  located  186  tribes 
on  the  Orinoco  and  its  affluents  alone  ;  but  renounced 
as  hopeless  the  attempt  to  give  them  a  linguistic 
classification.*  I  shall  not  attempt  to  unravel  the 
tangled  ethnography  of  this  region  farther  than  to 
mention  those  tribes  concerning  whom  specimens  of 
language  or  the  statements  of  European  visitors  per- 
mit a  reasonable  guess  as  to  their  affinities. 

Something  over  a  century  ago,  when  Father  Gilii 
wrote,  largely  from  personal  knowledge,  his  descrip- 
tion of  the  tribes  on  the  Orinoco  and  its  affluents,  he 
believed  they  could  be  included  in  nine  linguistic 
stocks, f  as  follows  : 

*  The  list  is  given  in  his  Personal  Narrative  of  a  Joiimey  in  the 
Equinoctial  Regions  of  America,  Vol.  VI.,  pp.  354~358,  of  the 
English  translation  (London,  1826). 

|F.  S.  Gilii,  Saggio  di  Storia  Americana,  Tom.  III.,  Lib.  III., 


264  THE  AMERICAN   RACE. 

1.  The  Carib  in  a  number  of  dialects,  as  the  Tam- 
anaca,   the    Paiura,    the    Quiri-Quiripa,    the    Mapuya, 
the  Guanero,  the  Guayquira,   the  Palenque,  the  Ma- 
quiritare,  the  Oje,  the  Mucuru,  and  others. 

2.  The  Saliva,    to   which  he  assigned  the  dialects 
Ature,  Piaroa  and  Quaqua. 

3.  The  Maipure   (Arawak),  in   its   dialects   Avane, 
Meepure,  Cavere,  Parene,  Guipunave,  and  Chirupa. 

4.  The  Otomaca,  with  one  dialect,  the  Tarapita. 

5.  The  Guama,  with  its  dialect,  the  Quaquaro. 

6.  The  Guayba,  related  to  the  Chiricoa. 

7.  The  Jaruri  (  Yarura). 

8.  The  Guarauna. 

9.  The  Aruaca. 

This  classification  can  stand  as  only  approximately 
accurate,  but  it  serves  as  an  excellent  starting  point. 

Beginning  with  the  Carib  stock,  and  basing  my  list 
on  the  works  of  Codazzi  and  more  recent  travelers, 
especially  CreVaux,  Coudreau  and  Chaffanjon,  I  offer 
the  following  as  the  tribes  which  may  be  definitely 
located  as  its  members  : 

CARIB  SUB-STOCK  IN  THE  ORINOCO    REGION. 

Amarizonas  (Amarisanes) ,  near  the  Rio  Guaviare  and  Rios 

Etari  and  Ayrico. 

ArecunaSy  on  head-waters  of  the  Rio  Caroni. 
Ariguas,  near  the  Rio  Tauca. 
Cabiunes,  on  the  Rio  Apoporis. 
Carataimas,  on  the  Rio  Cauca. 
Chaymas,  on  the  Rio  Guarapiche. 

cap.  12  (Roma,  1782).  In  speaking  of  lengue  tnatrici,  he  says 
positively,  "  In  tutta  1'estensione  del  grande  Orinoco  non  ve  ne 
so  no  che  nove,"  p.  204. 


TRIBES   OF  THE  ORINOCO.  265 

Cucciveros,  on  the  Rio  Cauca. 

Cuneguaras,  on  the  Rio  Maturin. 

Enaguas,  on  the  Rio  Agua  Branca. 

Giiarives,  on  the  Rio  Ufiare. 

Maquiritares,  on  the  Orinoco,  near  Lake  Carida  and  Rio  Ven- 

tuari. 

Matanos,  on  Rio  Caura. 
Mucos,  on  Rio  Apoporis. 
Panares,  on  Rio  Caura. 
Parecas,  on  the  lower  Orinoco. 
Paudacotos,  near  the  Rio  Caura. 
Quiri-Quiripas,  On  the  lower  Orinoco. 
Quivas,  on  the  Orinoco  near  the  confluence  of  the  Meta. 
Tamanacas,  on  lower  Orinoco. 
Tuapocos,  on  the  Rio  Maturin. 
Vayamanos,  on  the  Rio  Paragua. 
Yaos,  on  the  Rio  de  la  Trinidad. 
Yocunos,  on  the  Rio  Apoporis. 

Even  when  Codazzi  collected  his  material,  more 
than  half  a  century  ago,  the  once  powerful  Tamana- 
cas had  entirely  disappeared,  and  no  tribe  of  the  name 
existed  in  the  region.*  The  process  of  dissolution 
and  destruction  has  gone  on  since  his  day  with  in- 
creasing rapidity,  so  that  when  Chaffanjon  visited  the 
Orinoco  and  Caura  in  1884,  he  found  that  immense 
and  fertile  region  almost  uninhabited,  the  ancient 
tribes  scattered  and  disappeared,  or  existing  only  in 
wretched  remnants,  mistrables  ctibris,  of  their  former 
selves. f  The  opportunity  is  forever  lost,  therefore, 
to  define  the  ethnography  of  this  region  by  original 
observation,  and  we  are  thrown  back  on  the  collec- 
tions and  statements  of  former  observers. 

The   Maquiri tares,  however,  still  remain  as   one  of 

*Aug.  Codazzi,  Geografia de  Venezuela,^.  247,  248 (Paris,  1841). 
fj.  Chaffanjon,  L ' Orhioque et  la  Caura,  p.  247  (Paris,  1889). 


266  THE    AMERICAN   RACE. 

the  handsomest  peoples  on  the  Orinoco,  and  remark- 
able for  the  skill  with  which  they  manufacture  canoes 
sixty  or  seventy  feet  long  from  the  trunk  of  a  single 
tree.* 

On  the  river  Uaupes,  an  affluent  of  the  Rio  Negro 
M.  Coudreau  encountered  various  tribes,  such  as  the 
Tarianos  or  Javis  and  the  Nnehengatus,  of  whose 
tongues  he  obtained  brief  vocabularies.  They  indi- 
cate a  distant  influence  of  the  Carib  stock,  especially 
the  latter,  but  they  seem  mixed  largely  with  elements 
from  other  sources.f  They  dwell  adjacent  to  the 
Tucanos,  to  whom  I  have  already  referred  as  assigned 
by  some  to  the  Tapuyas.  (See  above,  p.  240.) 

Gilii's  second  group,  the  Salivas,  offers  difficulties. 
There  appears  to  be  none  of  them  under  that  name  at 
present  on  the  Orinoco.  Chaffanjon  states  that  the 
Atures  have  become  extinct.:}:  The  Piaroas  survive, 
but  the  tribe  so-called  to-day  speak  a  tongue  wholly 
unlike  the  Saliva,  and  unconnected,  apparently,  with 
any  other  stock  ;  §  and  the  modern  Quaquas(Guagues) 
speak  a  dialect  of  the  Arawak.  Yet  a  hundred  and 
fifty  years  ago  the  missionaries  estimated  the  Silavas 
at  four  thousand  souls.  They  lived  principally  on 
the  river  Cinareuco,  below  the  Meta,  and  also  on  the 
Rio  Etari,  where  they  were  in  contact  with  the  Carib 
Amarisanes.  They  are  described  as  of  a  kindly  and 

*  Michelena  y  Rojas,  Exploration  Oficial  de  la  America  delSur, 
p.  344  (Bruselas,  1867). 

f  A.  Coudreau,  Archives  de  la  SocietZ  Americaine  de  France, 
1885,  p.  281. 

%  L'Orenoque  et  le  Caura,  p.  183. 

8  See  the  Vocabularies. 


TRIBES  OF  THE   ORINOCO.  267 

gentle  disposition,  well-made  in  body  and  willing 
scholars  of  their  spiritual  masters.  In  their  heathen- 
dom they  had  the  unique  custom  of  disinterring  the 
bones  of  their  dead  after  the  expiration  of  a  year, 
burning  them,  and  then  collecting  the  ashes  to  mix 
with  their  drinking  water. *  Their  language,  which 
was  vocalic  and  nasal,  has  been  preserved  in  sufficient 
specimens  to  serve  for  comparison.  According  to 
Vergara  y  Vergara,  it  is  still  spoken  on  the  banks  of 
the  Meta,f  and  Hartmann  includes  in  those  who  em- 
ploy it,  the  Quevacus  and  Maritzis,  at  the  head  of  the 
Ventauri,  and  the  Mayongcong  on  the  Merevari.  ^ 

The  Arawak  stock,  which  Gilii  calls  the  Maipure, 
had  numerous  branches  in  this  region.  They  occu- 
pied much  of  the  Orinoco  in  its  middle  and  upper 
course,  as  well  as  the  valleys  of  its  affluents.  Gumilla 
speaks  of  one  of  its  members,  the  Caveres,  as  savage 
and  inhuman  warriors,  but  as  the  only  nation  which 
had  been  able  to  repulse  the  attacks  of  the  down-river 
Caribs,  who  were  accustomed  to  ascend  the  stream  in 
fleets  of  eighty  to  a  hundred  canoes,  destroying  every 
village  on  its  banks.  § 

*  Consult  J.  Cassani,  Historia  de  la  Provincia  de  la  Compania  de 
Jesus  del  Nuevo  Reyno  de  Granada,  fol.  170,  227  (Madrid,  1741)  ; 
and  Joseph  Gumilla,  El  Orinoco  Ilustrado  y  Defendido,  p.  65 
(Madrid,  1745). 

t  Quoted  by  Aristides  Rojas,  Estudios  Indigenas,  p.  183  (Caracas, 
1878).  This  work  contains  much  useful  information  on  the  Ven- 
ezuelan languages. 

J  Jorge  S.  Hartmann,  "  Indianerstamme  von  Venezuela,"  in 
Orig.  Mittheil.  aus  der  Ethnol.  Abtheil.  der  Konig.  Museen  zu 
Berlin,  1886,  s.  162. 

§  Joseph  Gumilla,  El  Orinoco,  p.  66. 


268  THE  AMERICAN   RACE. 

The  same  authority  mentions  the  Achaguas  as  pos- 
sessing the  most  agreeable  and  cultured  dialect, 
though  he  is  in  doubt  whether  it  is  strictly  related  to 
the  Maipure.  This  nation,  quite  prominent  in  the 
older  annals,  still  existed  in  the  middle  of  this  cen- 
tury to  the  number  of  five  hundred  on  the  Rio  Muco. 
They  were  not  civilized,  and  practiced  the  customs 
of  polyandry  and  the  destruction  of  female  infants.* 
Cassani  refers  to  them  as  on  the  river  Ele,  and  de- 
scribes them  as  tattooed  and  painted,  with  well-formed 
bodies  and  taking  great  pride  in  preserving  and  dress- 
ing their  magnificent  hair.f 

From  a  variety  of  sources  at  my  disposition  I  have 
prepared  the  following  list  of  the 

ARAWAK  SUB-STOCK   IN  THE  ORINOCO  REGION. 

Achaguas,  on  Rio  Ele  and  Rio  Muco. 
Amoruas,  on  Rio  Vichada. 
Avanenis,  on  Rio  Guainia. 
Banivas,  see  Manivas. 
Bares,  on  Rios  Baria  and  Guainia. 
Cabacabas,  between  Rios  Yapura  and  Apoporis. 
Cafuanas,  on  Rio  Yapura. 
Carusanas,  on  the  Guainia  and  Inirida. 
Cauiris,  right  bank  of  Rio  Guaviare. 
Caveres  (Cabres),  on  Rio  Zarna  and  Orinoco  near  it. 
Chirupas,  on  the  Rio  Zama. 
Guaripenis,  on  Rio  Guainia. 
Gnaypunavis  (Guipunavis) ,  on  Lake  Inirida. 
Macuenis,  on  Rio  Guainia. 

Manivas  (Banivas,  Manitivas~),  on  Rio  Guaviare  and  Rio  Negr 
and  their  affluents. 

*  Felipe  Perez,  Geografia  del  Estado  de  Cundinamarca,  p.  109. 
t  Histona  de  la  Proinncia  de  Granada,  pp.   87,  93.     He  cal' 
them  a  "  nacion  suave  y  racional." 


TRIBES   OF   THE   ORINOCO.  269 

Maipures,  on  middle  Orinoco. 
Moroquenis,  on  Rio  Yapura. 
Mituas,  on  Lake  Inirida. 
Moruas,  on  Rio  Yapura. 
Parenes,  on  middle  Orinoco. 
Piapocos,  near  mouth  of  Rio  Guaviare. 
Uaupes,  on  Rio  Uaupes  (?). 
YavitertS)  on  Rio  Atabapo. 

The  Otomacos  remain,  as  Gilii  placed  them,  an  in- 
dependent stock,  with  their  single  dialect,  the  Tara- 
pita.  The  Jesuits  first  encountered  them  in  1732, 
amid  the  forests  south  of  the  Orinoco,  between  the 
Paos  and  the  Jaruros.  In  later  years  they  are  de- 
scribed as  a  low  grade  of  savages,  given  to  the  eating 
of  earth.  They  are  also  said  to  be  monogamous,  and 
the  women  among  them  enjoy  an  unusual  .degree  of 
consideration,  being  permitted  to  take  equal  part  in 
the  public  games.*  Their  present  locality  appears  to 
be  on  or  near  the  river  Meta. 

The  tribes  whom  Gilii  mentions  as  the  Guamas 
and  Ouaquaros  lived  on  the  banks  of  the  Rio  Apure, 
and  in  his  day  had  the  reputation  of  "  a  numerous 
and  valorous  people/'f  They  were  not  unacquainted 
with  some  of  the  arts,  and  were  particularly  skillful 
in  the  manufacture  of  small  figures  in  terra  cotta, 
many  of  which  are  to  be  picked  up  on  the  sites  of 
their  ancient  villages.  Now,  however,  they  have 
been  smitten  with  the  fate  of  their  race,  and  are  re- 
duced to  a  few  miserable  vagrants,  destined  to  disap- 
pear wholly  in  a  few  years.  Their  arts  are  lost,  and 

*  Felipe  Perez,  Geografia  del  Estado  de  Boyuca,  p.  136. 
t  G.  D.  Coleti,  Dizionario  Storico-Geografico  dell1  America  Me- 
ridionale,  Toui.  I.,  p.  164  (Venezia,  1772). 


2/0  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

the  oppression  of  the  whites  has  driven  from  them  all 
hopes  of  bettering  their  condition.* 

Of  their  language  I  have  no  specimens.  According 
to  Felipe  Perez,  it  is  related  to  the  Omagua,  and  hence 
should  be  included  in  the  Tupi  stock ;  but  this  writer 
is  not  always  dependable. 

The  Guaybas  (Guahibos)  and  Chiricoas  dwelt  origi- 
nally on  the  broad  plains  between  the  Casanare  and 
Meta  rivers ;  but  a  number  of  them  were  converted  in 
the  latter  half  of  the  seventeenth  century  and  per- 
suaded to  come  to  the  missions.  They  soon  returned 
to  their  roving  life.  Cassani  speaks  of  them  as  of 
mild  and  friendly  disposition,  but  incorrigible  vaga- 
bonds, "  the  gypsies  of  the  Indies,"  constantly  mi- 
grating from  place  to  place. f  They  have  never  lost 
their  love  of  the  wilderness,  and  it  has  been  their  sal- 
vation, for  they  still  survive — quite  a  numerous  people 
— on  the  left  bank  of  the  Orinoco,  from  the  Rio  Meta 
to  the  Vichada.  They  are  rebellious  to  all  attempts  at 
civilization,  and  the  white  man  is  not  safe  who  ventures 
into  their  territory.  \ 

Humboldt,  in  his  discussion  of  the  tribes  of  the 
Orinoco,  refers  to  the  Guahibos  as  white  in  color, 
and  founds  some  speculations  on  this  fact.  Their 
hue  is  indeed  light,  at  times  what  may  fairly  be 

*J.  Chaffanjon,  L'Orenoque  et  le  Caura,  p.  121. 

f  "  Los  Gitanos  de  las  Indias,  todo  parecido  en  costumbres  y 
modo  de  vivir  de  nuestros  Gitanos. "  Cassani,  Hist,  de  la  Prov.  de 
Granada,  p.  in.  Gumilla  remarks  :  "  De  la  Guajiva  salen  varias 
ramas  entre  la  gran  variedad  de  Chiricoas."  (El  Orinoco  Ilus- 
trado,  etc.  Tom.  II.  p.  38.) 

JChaffanjon,  L' Orenoque  et  le  Caura,  pp.  177,  183,  187,  197. 


TRIBES   OF   THE   ORINOCO.  2/1 

called  a  dirty  white  ;  but  in  this  respect  we  are  assured 
by  recent  and  competent  authority  they  do  not  differ 
from  their  neighbors,  the  Maquiritares  and  Piaroas.  It 
is  not  a  question  of  descent,  but  of  climatic  surround- 
ings and  mode  of  life.* 

The  home  of  the  Jaruris,  Yaruros,  or,  as  they  called 
themselves,  Japurin,  was  on  and  near  the  Orinoco, 
between  the  rivers  Meta  and  Capanapaco.  They 
depended  on  hunting  and  fishing,  and  were  indolent 
and  averse  to  agriculture.  They  had  few  arts,  but 
were  friendly  in  disposition,  not  given  to  drunken- 
ness, and  usually  monogamous.  At  present  they 
number  scarcely  a  hundred  individuals,  badly  formed, 
afflicted  with  contagious  disease,  and  rapidly  on  the 
road  to  extinction.  They  have  lost  their  trait  of 
sobriety,  and  a  man  will  readily  offer  his  wife  or 
daughter  in  exchange  for  a  bottle  of  brandy.  (Chaf- 
fanjon.) 

The  Guaranties,  called  by  the  English  Warrausy 
continue  to  live  in  considerable  numbers — some  say 
about  fifteen  thousand — in  and  near  the  delta  of  the 
Orinoco.  They  are  a  thrifty,  healthy  people,  build- 
ing their  houses  ingeniously  upon  piles  to  protect 
them  from  the  periodical  overflows  of  the  stream. 
This  method  of  construction,  however,  was  adopted 
only  when  they  sought  as  refuge  marshy  and  lonely 
spots  to  escape  their  enemies.  Contrary  to  the  state- 
ments of  most  travelers,  those  who  know  them  best 
report  them  as  preferring  dry  uplands,  where  they 

*  The  subject  is  fully  discussed  from  long  personal  observation 
by  Michelena  y  Rojas,  Exploration  Oftcial  dc  la  America  del  Sur, 
p.  346. 


2/2  THE  AMERICAN   RACE. 

make  clearings,  plantations  and  houses  with  singular 
industry  and  skill.  The  favorite  wood  used  in  such 
construction  is  the  temicJie  (not  the  moriche)  palm, 
which  they  call,  from  its  magnificent  fronds,  "  the 
feathers  of  the  sun,"  yajuji* 

Humboldt  placed  their  number  at  the  beginning  of 
the  century  at  about  six  thousand,  which  is  doubtless 
more  correct  than  the  later  estimates.  He  adds  that 
the  Guayquiries,  who  inhabited  the  peninsula  of 
Araya  and  the  adjacent  islands  of  Margarita,  "  admit 
the  relationship  of  their  language  with  that  of  the 
Guaraunos."f  At  the  beginning  of  the  last  century 
Gumilla  found  them  living  on  the  south  bank  of  the 
Orinoco  in  a  most  wretched  condition  and  nearly  an- 
nihilated by  their  merciless  enemies,  the  Caribs.  It  is 
probable,  therefore,  that  they  removed  from  that  loca- 
tion to  the  coast.  ^  No  other  dialect  of  the  tongue,  so 
far  as  I  know,  has  been  discovered,  and  it  seems  an  in- 
dependent stock. 

In  appearance  they  are  dark  in  hue,  of  muscular 
build,  hair  black,  abundant  and  very  fine,  noses 

*  See  the  observations  of  I/evel  in  Michelena  y  Rojas,  Explora- 
tion Oficial  de  la  America  del  Sur,  p.  148,  sq.  The  Guaraunos 
are  also  well  described  by  Crevaux,  Voyages  dans  V  Amerique  du 
Sud,  p.  600,  sqq.  (Paris,  1883),  and  J.  Chaffanjon,  Archives  de  la 
Societe  Americaine  de  France,  1887,  p.  189.  Im  Thurn  draws  a 
very  unfavorable  picture  of  them  in  his  Indians  of  British  Guiana, 
p.  167. 

t  A.  Von  Humboldt,  Personal  Narrative,  Vol.  III.,  p.  216  (Eng. 
trans.  London,  1826). 

J  Joseph  Gumilla,  Z.1 'Orinoco  Ilustrado,  Tom.  II.,  p.  66.  They 
spoke  Carib  to  him,  but  that  was  the  lengua  general  of  the  lower 
river. 


TRIBES   OF   THE   ORINOCO.  2/3 

straight  and  well-shaped,  skull  brachycephalic,  stature 
below  medium. 

The  Aruaca  mentioned  by  Gilii  were  some  tribes 
of  the  Arawaks  who  occasionally  visited  the  southern 
bank  of  the  Orinoco,  and  whose  relations  to  the  May- 
pures  were  not  known  to  him.  They  are  also  men- 
tioned by  other  authors. 

Having  thus  reviewed  the  linguistic  stocks  named  by 
Gilii,  I  shall  proceed  to  mention  some  which  escaped 
his  attention. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  of  these  is  the  Betoi,  or 
Betoya.  This  tongue  derived  its  name  from  a  tribe 
dwelling  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains  of  Bogota,  be- 
tween the  rivers  Apure  and  Tame,  and  are  therefore 
included  by  some  among  the  Indians  of  New  Gra- 
nada. From  a  number  of  authorities  I  find  the  follow- 
ing members  are  attributed  to  the 

BETOYA   LINGUISTIC  STOCK. 

Airicos,  on  head-waters  of  the  Manacacia,  the  Ble  and  Guainia. 
Amaguages,  near  Rio  Caqueta. 
Anibalis,  on  Rio  Apure. 

Betois,  on  and  near  Rio  Casanare,  about  north  latitude  5°. 
Correguages,  on  Rio  Yari  and  head-waters  of  Caqueta. 
Jamas,  on  Rio  Manacacia. 

Macaguages,  on  Rios  Caucaya,  Mecaya  and  Sensella. 
Piojes,  on  Rio  Putumayo,  and  on  the  Napo  and  Caucaya  (Cocayu). 
Quilifayes,  on  Rio  Apure. 
Situfas,  on  Rio  Casanare. 
Tamas,  on  the  Rio  Yari  and  Rio  Caguo. 
Tunebos,  in  the  Cordillera,  adjacent  to  the  Betois. 

Of  these,  the  Piojes  and  Correguages,  of  which  we 
have  vocabularies,  do  not  show  close  resemblance  to 

18 


2/4  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

the  Betoya,  yet  undoubtedly  some  ;  *  so  I  place  them 
in  this  stock  partly  in  deference  to  old  authorities. 

The  Piojes  derive  their  name  from  the  particle  of 
negation  in  their  language,  this  being  their  usual  re- 
ply to  all  inquiries  by  traders  or  travelers.  They  are 
divided  into  two  bands,  speaking  the  same  dialect, 
one  on  the  Napo  and  one  on  the  Putumayo,  neither 
knowing  anything  of  the  other.  Some  of  their  cus- 
toms are  peculiar.  For  instance,  it  is  their  rule  that 
a  widow  shall  take  her  son,  a  widower  his  daughter, 
to  replace  the  deceased  consort. f  They  are  somewhat 
agricultural,  and  are  skillful  boatmen. 

The  Tamas  formerly  lived  on  the  river  Aguarico 
(Coleti).  Dr.  Crevaux  found  them  on  the  Caguo,  a 
branch  of  the  Yapura,  and  obtained  from  them  a 
short  vocabulary,  but  enough  to  mark  them  as  mem- 
bers of  the  stock.  £  There  are  also  some  on  the  Rio 
Meta  who  speak  Spanish  only.  (Perez.) 

The  Betoya  has  impressed  me  as  showing  some  dis- 
tant affinity  to  the  Choco  stock,  and  it  may  be  that 
ampler  resources  on  both  sides  would  lead  to  the  es- 
tablishment of  an  original  identity.  The  following 
words  from  the  very  scanty  number  which  I  have  for 
comparison  are  noteworthy : 

*  A  description  of  the  Correguages  and  a  vocabulary  of  their  dia- 
lect are  given  by  the  Presbyter  Manuel  M.  Albis,  in  Bulletin  of  the 
Amer.  Ethnol.  Soc.,  Vol.  I.,  p.  55. 

f  Arthur  Simpson,  Travels  in  the  Wilds  of  Ecuador,  p.  196  (Lon- 
don, 1886).  In  his  appendix  the  author  gives  a  vocabulary  of  the 
Pioje  (and  also  one  of  the  Zaparo). 

t  Printed  in  the  Bibliotheque  Linguistique  Americaine,  by 
M.  L.  Adam,  Tome  VIII. ,  p.  52. 


TRIBES   OF  THE  ORINOCO.  275 

CHOCO  STOCK.         BETOYA  STOCK. 

Man,  uma-china,  uma-soi,  emi-ud. 

Woman,  uerd,  ro. 

Fire,  t&joor,  toa-tui. 

Ear,  juru,  ca-joro-so. 

Nose,  jun,  ju-saca,jin-quepui. 

The  Choco  do,  river,  seems  related  to  the  Betoya 
ocu-du,  water. 

The  Macaguages  are  industrious  and  agricultural. 
Both  sexes  dress  alike  in  cotton  tunics  dyed  in  vio- 
let color,  and  suspend  bright  feathers  and  strings  of 
beads  in  ears,  nose  and  lips.* 

A  singular  question  has  arisen  as  to  the  relationship 
of  the  Betoya  and  the  Yarura  languages.  Their  near 
connection  was  affirmed  by  the  early  missionaries. 
In  fact,  the  history  of  the  conversion  of  the  Betoyas 
turns  upon  the  identity  of  the  two  tongues.  It  was 
brought  about  in  1701  by  a  Yarura  Indian,  a  convert 
to  Christianity,  who  accidentally  discovered  that  he 
was  understood  by  the  Betoyas. 

In  spite  of  this  detail,  it  is  evident  from  an  inspec- 
tion of  the  vocabularies,  that  there  is  absolutely  no 
relationship  between  the  two  idioms.  I  can  only  ex- 
plain the  contradiction  as  arising  from  some  ambigu- 
ity or  similarity  of  names.  The  two  tribes  lived  to- 
gether in  the  time  of  Gumilla,  making  up  about  three 
thousand  souls,  f 

*  Manuel  P.  Albis,  \nBull.  of  the  Amer.  Ethnol.  Society,  Vol.  L, 
P-  55- 

f  See  the  account  in  the  interesting  work  of  Father  Cassani,  His- 
toria  de  la  Provincia  de  la  Campania  de  Jesus  del  Nuevo  Reyno  de 
Granada,  pp.  231,  232,  257,  etc.  (Madrid,  1741).  He  describes  the 
Jiraras  as  having  the  same  rites,  customs  and  language  as  the  Airi- 


276  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

About  the  middle  of  this  century  some  six  hundred 
of  the  Betoyas  dwelt  on  the  head-waters  of  the  river 
Manacacia.* 

In  the  territory  of  St.  Martin,  above  the  falls  of  the 
Guaviare  and  along  the  Rio  Guejar  and  the  Meta,  are 
several  tribes  asserted  to  speak  related  dialects,  but  of 
which  I  have  little  information.  The  principal  one 
is  that  of  the  Churoyas,  of  whom  Professor  Nicolas 
Saenz  has  given  an  interesting  sketch  and  a  short 
vocabulary,  f  They  are  very  ugly,  with  broad  faces, 
low  foreheads,  small  and  oblique  eyes,  and  in  color 
like  dried  tobacco.  Nudity  is  their  usual  garb,  and 
the  skin  is  decorated  with  tattoo  marks  instead  of 
clothing.  According  to  Perez  they  number  about 
12004  Following  him  and  other  authorities,  I  may 
enumerate  the  following  members  of  the 

CHUROYA   LINGUISTIC  STOCK. 

Bisaniguas,  on  the  Rio  Guejar. 
Choroyas,  on  the  Rio  Guejar. 
Cofanes,  on  the  Rio  Aguarico. 
Guayues,  on  the  Rio  Caqueta. 
Macos,  on  the  Rio  Aguarico. 

Whether  the  Cofanes  here  named  are  those  of  the 

cos  on  the  river  Ele,  p.  96.  Gumilla  makes  the  following  doubt- 
ful statement:  "  De  la  lengua  Betoya  y  Jirara,  que  aunque  esta 
gasta  pocas  erres,  y  aquella  demasiadas,  ambas  quieren  ser  matri- 
ces, se  derivan  las  lenguas  Situfa,  Ayrica,  Ele,  Luculia,  Jabue, 
Arauca,  Quilifay,  Anaboli,  Lolaca,  y  Atabaca."  (El  Orinoco  II us- 
trado  y  Defendido,  Tom.  II.,  p.  38,  Madrid,  1745.) 

*  Felipe  Perez,  Geografia  del  Estado  de  Cundinamarca,  p.  113. 

f  In  the  Zeitschrift  fur  Ethnologic,  1876,  s.  336,  sq. 

J  Geografia  del  Eslado  de  Cundinamarca,  p.  114  (Bogota,  1863). 


TRIBES   OF  THE   ORINOCO.  277 

Province  of  Quitu  who  murdered  the  Jesuit  missionary, 
Raphael  Ferrer,  in  1602,  I  have  not  discovered.  Perez 
describes  them  as  still  warlike  and  seclusive,  living  in 
the  terminal  hills  of  the  Cordillera,  and  avoiding  traf- 
fic with  the  tribes  of  the  lower  river.* 

An  examination  of  the  vocabulary  furnished  by 
Saenz  inclines  me  to  think  that  the  Churoya  may  be 
a  mongrel  dialect,  or  at  least  has  borrowed  freely 
from  neighboring  stocks.  I  subjoin  the  principal 
words  from  his  short  vocabulary,  with  some  compari- 
sons: 

Sun,  mshojaint. 

Moon,  juimit  (oantito,  Guahibo). 

Fire,  hijit  (chichi,  =  sun,  Carib). 

Water,  minta. 

Bow,  piranso  (paria,  Roucouyenne). 

Arrow,  funait. 

Tobacco,  joo. 

Plantain,  parasa. 

Dog,  uilg. 

Tortoise,  ainjachie. 

Wind,  che. 

Skin,  begt. 

The  Piaroas  are  mentioned  by  Gilii  as  a  branch  of 
the  Salivas,  but  their  language  reveals  no  such  con- 
nection. They  are  still  found  on  both  banks  of  the 
Orinoco  above  the  confluence  of  the  Vichada  and 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Mataveni.  They  are  savage 
and  superstitious,  avoiding  contact  with  the  whites; 
they  have  had  good  reason  to  be  extremely  distrustful 
of  the  advances  of  their  civilized  neighbors.  They 
are  much  given  to  nocturnal  ceremonies,  and  enter- 

*  Ibid.,  Geografia  del  Estado  de  Cauca,  p.  313. 


2/8  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

tain  a  great  respect  for  the  tapir,  who  is  their  reputed 
ancestor,  and  also  the  form  which  is  taken  by  the  souls 
of  the  departed.* 

The  Puinavis  dwell  on  the  Inirida,  an  affluent  of  the 
Guaviare.  A  tribe,  the  Guipunabis,  is  mentioned  by 
Gilii  as  belonging  to  the  Maipure  (Arawak)  stock ;  but 
it  cannot  be  the  same  with  the  one  under  considera- 
tion, the  language  of  which  appears  to  be  without 
affinities.  Latham  identified  them  with  the  Poignavis 
of  the  older  writers,  and  on  slight  linguistic  evidence, 
believed  them  connected  with  the  Banivas.f  My  own 
comparisons  do  not  justify  this  opinion. 

8.     The  Upper  Amazonian  Basin. 

No  portion  of  the  linguistic  field  of  South  America 
offers  greater  confusion  than  that  of  the  western 
Amazonian  region.  The  statements  are  so  conflict- 
ing, and  the  tribal  changes  apparently  so  rapid,  that 
we  are  at  a  loss  to  bring  modern  observations  into 
accord  with  older  statements.  Thus,  I  am  entirely 
unable  to  accept  the  linguistic  classification  of  Hervas, 
which  certainly  was  based  on  the  best  information  of 
his  day.  As  a  matter  of  comparison  I  give  it. 

*  ChafTanjon,  ubi  supra,  p.  203. 

f  He  gives  oueni,  water,  zenquerot,  moon,  as  identical  in  the  Pu- 
inavi  and  Baniva.  The  first  may  pass,  but  the  second  is  incorrect. 
See  his  remarks  in  A.  R.  Wallace,  Travels  on  the  Amazon  and  Rio 
Negro,  p.  528  (London,  1853).  A  vocabulary  of  53  Puinavi  words 
is  furnished  from  Dr.  CreVaux's  notes  in  Vol.  VIII.  of  the  Biblio- 
theque  Linguistique  Americaine  (Paris,  1882). 


TRIBES   OF   THE   UPPER   AMAZON. 


279 


List   of  Languages    in   the    Governments   of  Maynas 
and  the  Maranon  (Hervas). 


STOCKS.                   DIALECTS. 

STOCKS.              DIALECTS. 

'  Araro. 

f  Chapo. 

Chuudavino. 

1   Coronado. 

Gae. 

8.  MAINA.        "j   Humurano. 

Guazago. 

[  Roamaino. 

I.  ANDOA.         -    Murato. 
Pabo. 

9.  MUNICHE.  j  Muchimo- 
I  Otanabe. 

Pinche. 
Simigae. 

(  Iltipo. 
10.  PANA. 
(  Pelada. 

Bobonazo. 

'  Amjemhuaco. 
Curano. 
Manua. 

iCusitinavo. 
Manatinavo. 
TJpatarinavo. 

2.  CAMPA.          .    Nanerua. 

f  Arazo. 

Nesahuaco. 

Ijinori. 

Sepaunabo. 

12.  SIMIGAE.    \  Nevo. 

-  Tasio. 

Oa. 

3-  CHAYA-          f  Cahuapano. 

[  Zaparro. 

VITA.             I  paranaruro. 
f  Ginua. 

(Putumayo. 
Yete. 

Inuaco. 

Ceoqueyo. 

4.  COMABA.       •{  _,          ,    , 
Ruanababo. 

f  Barbudo. 

[  Zepo. 
(Manamabobo. 

Itucale. 
14.  URARINA.  j  Mayorufio. 

Mananama- 

[^  Musimo. 

bua. 

{Atnaono. 

Guajoyo. 
Guencoyo. 

Nahuapo. 
Napeano. 

6.  ENCABEL-         Neocoyo. 

Masamae. 

I.ADA.            I   Zaparro,  or 

r  Acamaori. 

Encabellado. 

Camacori. 

I  Ziecoyo. 

16.   JINORI.       \  Iqueconejori. 

7.  IKBERA.         /  Tiputini. 
1  Tibilo. 

Panajori. 
[  Tremojori. 

A  slight  examination  of  this   classification    suffices 

to   reveal   its  general   inaccuracy.     The    Zaparos  arc 

280  THE  AMERICAN   RACE. 

included  in  both  the  Encabellada  and  the  Simigae 
stocks.  The  latter  is  given  both  as  a  stock  and  as  a 
dialect  of  the  Andoa.  In  fact,  all  three  of  the  stocks 
named  belong  together  as  dialects  of  one.  The  Pano 
stock,  as  we  now  know  it,  appears  scattered  under 
Cuniba,  Urarina  and  Pana ;  and  the  arrangement  is 
incorrect  in  many  other  points.  While  it  has  a  value 
in  preserving  the  names  of  some  now  missing  tribes, 
as  a  linguistic  scheme  it  is  wholly  unsafe. 

The  Zaparos  constitute  one  of  the  most  extended 
and  numerous  nations  in  the  upper  valley  of  the 
Amazon.  They  dwell  near  or  adjacent  to  the  Jivaros 
on  the  south,  and  as  their  name  is  variously  spelled 
Zaparos,  Xeberos  and  Jeberos,  they  have  at  times  been 
confounded  with  them.  They  differ,  however,  not 
only  in  language,  but  in  appearance  and  temperament. 
The  Zaparos  are  lighter  in  color,  smaller  in  stature, 
with  oblique  eyes,  large  mouths,  and  expanded  nos- 
trils.* Their  disposition  is  indolent  and  easy  tem- 
pered, and  their  abilities  inferior.  This  is  seen  in  the 
construction  of  their  houses  and  the  appearance  of 
their  fields,  which  do  not  compare  advantageously 
with  those  of  the  Jivaros;  but  they  display  some  in- 
genuity in  manufacturing  clothing  from  the  bark  of  a 
species  of  Ochroma,  and  they  are  skillful  in  concocting 
the  urara  poison,  in  making  blow-pipes,  and  are  daring 
boatmen. 

In  1632  they  lived  near  the  Omaguas,  on  the  river 
Curary,  and  their  number  was  estimated  by  the  mis- 

*Ed.  Andre,  in  Le  Tour  du  Monde,  1883,  p.  406.  But  Osculati 
describes  them  as  tall  and  fine-looking,  with  small  mustaches. 
Esplorazione  delle  Regioni  Equatorial,  p.  164,  sq.  (Milano,  1850). 


TRIBES   OF   THE   UPPER  AMAZON.  28 1 

sionaries  at  10,000.  At  present  their  main  body 
dwells  between  the  rivers  Pastaza  and  Napo  and 
along  the  Maraflon  between  the  rivers  Zamora  and 
Morona.  In  1850  Osculati  estimated  their  number  at 
over  20,000,  which  is  certainly  in  excess  of  their 
present  representatives.  The  many  small  tribes  into 
which  they  are  divided,  and  the  confused  orthography 
of  the  names  applied  to  them,  render  it  difficult  to 
offer  a  satisfactory  list.  It  seems  tolerably  certain 
that  the  ancient  "  Andoas  "  were  the  Zaparos  of  the 
upper  Pastaza,*  and  equally  sure  that  the  Encabel- 
lada,  the  lebera,  the  Simigae  and  the  Jinori  lan- 
guages, all  supposed  by  Hervas  to  be  independent 
stocks, f  were  spoken  by  members  of  the  Zaparo 
family.  The  Iquitos  are  another  populous  branch, 
sometimes  supposed  to  be  distinct. 

The  Zaparo  language  is  agreeable  to  the  ear,  par- 
taking of  the  phonetic  character  of  the  Brazilian 
idioms.  The  Italian  traveler,  Osculati,  has  furnished 
a  very  satisfactory  account  of  it,  both  grammatical 
and  lexicographical,^:  and  there  are  vocabularies  by 
other  voyagers. 

I  offer  the  following  alphabetic  list  of  the  sub-tribes 

*  This  opinion  is  supported  by  Kamy,  Villavicencio,  and  other 
good  authorities. 

f  Hervas,  Catal.  de  las  Lenguas  Conocidas,  Tom.  I.,  p.  262.  The 
term  Encabellados  was  applied  to  the  tribe  from  their  custom  of 
allowing  the  hair  to  grow  to  their  waist.  (Leltres  Edifientes, 
Tom.  II.,  p.  112).  The  Pater  Noster  in  the  Encabellada  dialect  is 
printed  by  E.  Teza  in  his  Saggi  Inediti  di  Lingue  Americans, 
p.  53  (Pisa,  1868). 

J  la  the  closing  chapters  of  his  Esplotaziom,  above  quoted. 


282 


THE  AMERICAN   RACE. 


of   the  Zaparos,  without    attempting  to  define    their 
several  positions  in  the  general  district  referred  to  : 


ZAPARO   LINGUISTIC   STOCK. 


Achuales. 

Curyies. 

Macavinas. 

Putumayos. 

Agapicos. 

Curarayes. 

Mautas. 

Quirivinas. 

Aicores. 

Custimanos. 

Moronas. 

Rotunos. 

Andoas. 

Cutinanas. 

Mueganos. 

Semigaes. 

Anguteris. 

Encabellados. 

Muratos. 

Shiripunas. 

Antires. 

Eriteynes. 

Napotoas, 

Tabalosos. 

Araros,  or 

Frascavinos. 

Neocoyos. 

Tiputinis. 

Arazos. 

Gaes. 

Nepas. 

Tivilos. 

Ayacares. 

Ginoris. 

Nerecamues. 

Tremajoris. 

Bobonazos, 

Gualaquizas. 

Nushinis. 

Yasunis. 

Cahuaches. 

Guazacas. 

Oas. 

Yegtteyos. 

Chudavinos. 

Himuetacas. 

Panajoris. 

Yetes. 

Churitunas. 

Huasimoas. 

Paranapuras. 

Zamoros. 

Comacoris. 

Ibanomas. 

Pastazas. 

Zapaos. 

Conejoris. 

Incuris. 

Pavos. 

Copatasas. 

Itremajoris, 

Pindis. 

On  the  mountain  slope  of  the  Cordillera,  north  of 
the  Zaparos  and  east  of  the  Caftaris,  are  the  Jiva- 
ros  (Givaros,  Xivaros),  a  wild,  warlike  tribe,  never 
subjugated  either  by  the  Kechuas  or  the  Spaniards. 
Their  homes  are  about  the  head-waters  of  the  rivers 
Pastaza,  Santiago,  and  other  affluents  of  the  Maraflon. 
They  are  rather  tall,  of  light  color,  with  thin  lips, 
aquiline  noses,  straight  eyes,  prognathic  jaws,  hair 
black  or  with  a  reddish  tinge. 

Some  say  their  various  bands  number  as  many  as 
four  hundred,  named  from  the  streams  on  which  they 
live.  Most  of  them  depend  upon  hunting  and  fishing, 
others  pursue  agriculture  and  breed  pigs.  Their 
weapons  are  the  sarbacane,  the  lance,  the  bow  and 
the  shield.  They  have  developed  a  system  of  sound- 


THE   JIVAROS.  283 

signalling  or  telegraphy  by  means  of  large  wooden 
drums  placed  at  certain  distances  apart,  by  beating 
on  which  in  a  peculiar  manner  the  advent  of  an 
enemy,  his  number  and  direction,  can  be  heralded 
over  hundreds  of  square  miles  in  a  few  hours.  The 
Jivaros  are  celebrated  for  the  preparation  of  human 
heads  by  a  process  of  boiling  and  drying  so  as  to  pre- 
serve the  hair  and  soft  parts.  Many  of  these  trophy 
heads  have  been  brought  to  Europe,  and  their  pur- 
pose has  led  to  some  discussion.  It  appears  that  they 
are  prepared  both  as  trophies  of  victory  and  out  of 
reverence  to  departed  chiefs.*  Their  houses  are  built 
solidly  of  wood,  with  wooden  doors.  They  sleep 
upon  wooden  frames,  and  construct  tools  of  the  same 
material.f 

The  principal  event  in  their  history  was  their  re- 
volt against  the  Spanish  authorities  in  the  year  1599. 
They  destroyed  many  settlements  and  the  entire  city 
of  Logrofio,  carrying  the  women  into  captivity. 
Many  of  them  had  already  been  converted  to  Chris- 
tianity, and  their  rites  are  said  still  to  preserve  some 
reminiscences  of  such  teachings.  In  recent  years 
many  of  them  have  been  civilized  through  the  efforts 
of  Italian  missionaries. 

The  language  of  this  important  nation,  although 
early  studied,  has  as  yet  no  printed  literature.  I  have 
found  of  it  only  the  first  five  numerals,  which  do  not 

*  An  excellent  article  on  the  ethnography  of  this  tribe  is  the 
"  Osservazioni  Ethnografiche  sui  Givari,"  by  G.  A.  Colini  in  Real. 
Accad.  dei  Lincei,  Roma,  1883.  See  also  Alfred  Simpson,  Travels 
in  the  Wilds  of  Ecuador,  p.  91,  sq.  (London,  1886). 

f  Ed.  Andre",  in  Le  Tour  du  Monde,  1883,  p.  406. 


284  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

seem  to  have  connection  with  any  other  tongue. 
They  are  as  follows  : 

I.  Alza ;  2.  catuta ;  3.  kala ;  4.  ingatu  ;  5.  aley- 
ticlon* 

From  a  study  of  proper  names  and  ethnographic 
traits,  Dr.  Hamy  has  expressed  himself  with  great  as- 
surance that  the  Jivaros  belong  to  the  Guarani  group 
of  the  Tupi  stock ;  f  but  the  above  numerals  do  not 
indicate  such  relationship,  nor  do  I  think  that  his 
other  arguments  establish  it.  For  the  present  they 
must  be  considered  an  independent  stock. 

JIVARO   LINGUISTIC  STOCK. 

Antipas,  above  the  Pongo  de  Manseriche. 

Aguarunas,  below  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Nieva  and  Rio  Huallaga. 

Ayulis,  on  the  Rio  Morono. 

Cherembos,  left  bank  of  Maranon. 

Chirapas. 

Huambisas,  on  Maranon  above  the  Pongo  de  Manseriche. 

Lojanos. 

Muratos,  below  mouth  of  the  Rio  Pastaza. 

Pautis. 

Uambisas,  south  of  the  Maranon. 

Zamoras. 

The  eastern  neighbors  of  the  Jivaros  are  the  scat- 
tered bands  of  the  Maynas,  separated  by  Hervas  into 
two  stocks,  the  Maina  and  the  Chayavita,  but  so  far 
as  I  can  learn,  without  sufficient  reason.  The  lan- 

*Prof.  Raimondi,  in  the  Anthropological  Review >   Vol.  I.,  p. 

33-  sq- 

f  "  La  comunaute"  d'origine  entre  les  Jivaros  et  les  tribus  du 
grand  groupe  guaranien  se  trouvera  etablie  avec  assurance."  Dr. 
Hamy,  "  Nouveaux  Renseignements  sur  les  Indiens  Jivaros,"  in 
the  Revue  d'Anthropologie,  1873,  p.  390. 


TRIBES   OF   THE   MARAftON.  285 

guage  is  or  was  spoken  at  the  mission  of  the  Concep- 
tion on  the  upper  Maraflon  and  in  the  uplands  around 
Cerros  de  Mainas.  It  is  singularly  harsh  and  difficult. 
The  natives  were  wild,  and  lived  by  hunting  and  fish- 
ing. Their  earlier  home  was  on  the  upper  waters  of 
the  Morona  and  Pastaza  rivers. 

The  following  bands  are  embraced  in  the 

MAINA    LINGUISTIC  STOCK.* 

Cahuapanas.         Chayavitas,        Humuranos.        Roantainas. 
Chapos.  Coronados.         Mainas. 

On  the  Rio  Javary  there  seem  to  be  several  inde- 
pendent stocks.  One  of  these  is  that  of  the  Yatneosy 
who  are  found  in  the  lower  course  of  the  river  and 
also  further  up  the  Marafton,  near  Nauta,  and  on  the 
Huallaga,  where  they  are  called  Llameos,  Yameos, 
Lamas,  or  Lamistas.  Formerly  they  were  a  numer- 
ous and  warlike  nation,  sharply  divided  into  gentile 
organizations,  and  carefully  refraining  from  inter- 
marriage in  the  gens.  At  an  early  date  we  hear  of 
them  between  the  Rio  Tigre  and  the  Napo.  (Mark- 
ham.) 

The  following  sub-tribes  are  stated  by  various  writers 
to  belong  to  the 

LAMA  LINGUISTIC  STOCK. 

Aguanos.  Cahuaches.  Nahuapos.  Yarrapos. 

Alabonos.  Massamaes          Napeanos. 

Amaonos.  Miquianos.          Parranos. 

*The  Mithridates  (Bd.  III.,  Ab.  II.,  s.  592)  gives  from  Hervas 
the  Pater  Noster  in  the  Maina  dialect.  Professor  Teza  (Saggi  in- 
edltidi  Lingue  Americane,  pp.  54-57)  has  published  the  Pater 
Noster,  Ave,  Credo  and  Salve  in  the  Cahuapana  dialect.  They 
differ  but  little. 


286  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

Poeppig  describes  them  as  agricultural  and  indus- 
trious, and  much  given  to  trade  and  travel. 

In  appearance,  they  are  small,  dirty  and  Mongoloid, 
sharply  contrasting  with  the  Indians  of  the  Huallaga, 
who  are  all  tall,  strong  and  well  built,  with  good  feat- 
ures.* 

In  conformity  to  old  authorities,  Markham  classes 
the  Ardas  as  a  sub-tribe  of  the  Yameos.  Their  home 
was  between  the  rivers  Napo  and  Masso.  On  the 
latter  they  were  in  immediate  contiguity  to  the 
Massamaes  (Coleti).  There  has  been  published  a 
Doctrina  in  their  language,  from  which  the  Lord's 
Prayer  is  quoted  by  Ludevvig.f  This  version  has  no 
resemblance  to  the  Pater  in  Yamea  contained  in  the 
Mithridates ;  so  for  the  present  I  leave  the  Ardas  un- 
classified. 

Higher  up  the  river  Javary  are  a  number  of  tribes 
speaking  related  dialects  of  what  I  shall  call  the  Peba 
stock,  though  there  are  some  reasons  to  consider  it  a 
corrupt  dialect  of  the  Omagua,  and  hence  related  to 
the  Tupi. 

PEBA  LINGUISTIC  STOCK. 

Caumaris.  Cauwachis.  Pacayas.  Pebas. 

To  this  list  I  add  the  Yeguas,  Yaguas  or  Yahuas, 
found  in  the  same  vicinity,  and  remarkable  for  their 
fine  personal  appearance,  "  the  most  perfect  physical 
type,"  says  M.  Ordinaire,  "  of  all  the  Indian  races."  ^ 

*  See  E.  Poeppig,  "  Die  Indiervolker  des  obern  Huallaga,"  in  his 
Reise  in  Chile  und  Peru,  Bd.  II.,  ss.  320,  321,  400,  etc. 

f  Literature  of  American  Aboriginal  Languages,  p.  12. 

\  Olivier  Ordinaire,  "  Les  Sauvages  du  Perou,"  in  the  Revue 
d'Ethnologie,  1887,  p.  320. 


TRIBES   OF   THE   MARAfiON.  287 

The  vocabulary  of  their  language  obtained  by  Castel- 
nau  shows  unmistakable  affinities  to  that  of  the 
Pebas.* 

On  the  Rio  Chambira,  adjacent  to  the  Yameos  and 
Omaguas,  dwelt  in  the  early  part  of  the  last  century 
the  Itucales  and  Varinas  or  Uarunas,  who,  according 
to  Coleti,  spoke  allied  dialects.  The  Itucales  were 
noteworthy  as  the  aptest  and  most  biddable  converts 
obtained  by  the  missionaries  on  the  river.  They  were 
agricultural  and  monogamous,  f  Hervas  classes  them 
with  the  Musimos,  the  Mayorunas  and  the  Barbudos, 
under  the  Urarina  language ;  but  the  last  two  are 
members  of  the  Pano  stock. 

The  Ticunas  (Tecunas,  Tucunas)  are  found  along 
the  lower  Javary  and  the  Solimoes,  adjacent  to  the 
Pebas.  They  wander  about  in  a  state  of  nakedness, 
depending  on  hunting  and  fishing,  and  under  a  loose 
control  of  the  Brazilian  government.  Many  of  them 
can  converse  in  Kechua,  though  their  own  tongue  is 
of  a  different  group.  They  are  given  to  dances  of  a 
sacred  character,  in  which  the  actors  appear  in  masks. 


*  For  example  : 

YAHTJA. 

PEBA. 

Bow, 

cano, 

canou. 

Ear, 

on-tisiu, 

mi-tiwi. 

Hair, 

rinoncay, 

rainosay. 

Head, 

fi-rignio, 

raino. 

Heart, 

hu-iachai, 

ca-iishi. 

Forehead, 

uno, 

nimo. 

Nose, 

unirou, 

vinerro. 

Woman, 

huata, 

uatoa. 

The  Yahua  has  more  Kechua  elements  than  the  Peba. 
t  Lettres  Edifiantes  et  Curieuses,  Tome  II.,  p.  112. 


288  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

An  operation  allied  to  circumcision  is  practiced  on 
infants  of  both  sexes  at  the  time  of  assigning  them 
names.*  One  of  the  several  tribes  called  "  Orejones  " 
is  thought  by  Poeppig  to  belong  to  the  Ticunas.f 

The  tribes  in  the  valley  of  the  Huallaga  were  first 
visited  by  Franciscan  missionaries  in  1676.  In  that 
year  Father  Jose  de  Araujo  converted  a  number  of  the 
Hibitos  (Xibitos)  in  the  Upper  Huallaga,  and  wrote 
an  arte  of  their  language.  He  found  it  the  same  as 
that  of  the  Chunchos  in  the  Sierra.  Their  neighbors 
further  down  the  river,  the  Cholones,  speaking  a  dif- 
ferent idiom,  were  brought  under  the  instruction  of 
Father  Francisco  Gutierrez,  who  composed  a  work  on 
their  tongue.  A  century  later  we  find  these  two  na- 
tions living  together  at  the  mission,  counting  4800 
souls,  and  occupying  that  portion  of  the  province  of 
Cajamarquilla  between  7°  and  8°  30'  s.  lat.  They 
were  peaceable  and  agricultural,  with  fields  of  cotton 
and  food  plants.  \ 

This  fair  scene  disappeared  in  the  turbulent  life  of 
the  next  generation,  and  when  the  traveler  Poeppig 
visited  the  Huallaga  in  1834  he  found  the  mission  in 
decay,  and  the  natives,  much  reduced  in  numbers, 
had  resumed  their  wild  life  and  again  become  sav- 
ages. §  At  present,  along  the  main  stream  to  the 

*Von  Martius,  Ethnographic  und  Sprachenkunde  Amerikas> 
Bd.  I.,  s.  445. 

t  Reisein  Chile  und  Peru,  Bd.  II.,  s.  415. 

J  Jose  Amich,  Compendia  Historico  de  la  Serafica  Religion,  etc., 
pp.  77,  78. 

%  E.  Poeppig,  Reise  in  Chile  und  Peru,  Bd.  II.,  s.  328  (Leipzig, 
1836). 


THE   PANOS.  289 

north,  are  the  Cocamillas,  the  Aguanteas,  and  the 
Puinahuas.  All  these  appear  to  be  of  the  Tupi 
stock,  with  dialects  akin  to  the  Cocama  and  Oma- 
gua.* 

The  Panos.  When  the  missionaries  first  crossed 
the  Cordillera  and  explored  the  upper  Ucayali  river, 
they  found  a  number  of  related  tribes,  the  principal 
of  whom  were  the  Panos.  By  their  traditions  they 
had  moved  from  near  the  equator  at  the  north.  They 
differed  little  in  culture  from  their  neighbors,  and  are 
now  nearly  extinct.  By  the  earlier  writers  they  were 
placed  in  relation  to  the  Omaguas  as  members  of  the 
Tupi  stock,f  but  the  researches  of  M.  Raoul  de  la 
Grasserie  have  vindicated  for  them  an  independent  po- 
sition.^; They  are  said  to  have  possessed  a  form  of 
hieroglyphic  writing,  which  they  painted  on  a  sort  of 
paper  manufactured  from  vegetable  fibre. 

Some  of  the  Mayorunas  are  reported  as  having 
thick  beards  and  white  skins  (Martius),  but  these  pe- 
culiarities are  probably  attributable  to  early  admix- 
tures with  the  white  race. 

The  largest  of  these  tribes  at  present  is  that  of  the 
Conibos,  who  constitute  now  the  greater  part  of  the 
natives  the  traveler  encounters  on  the  Ucayali.  In 
appearance  they  have  some  resemblance  to  the  Peru- 
vians. The  nose  is  aquiline  and  prominent,  the  fore- 
head broad,  the  eye  large,  and  the  cheek  bones  not 

*  Cf.   Olivier  Ordinaire,  "  Les  Sauvages  du   Perou,"  in  Revue 
d' 'Ethnologic,  1887,  pp.  316,  317. 
f  Von  Martius,  Ethnog.  und  Sprach.  Amerikas,  Bd.  I.,  s.  435. 

t  Compte-Rendu  du  Cong.  Internal,  des  Americanistes,  1888, 
p.  438. 

19 


THE    AMERICAN   RACE. 

prominent.  In  intelligence  they  are  superior  to  their 
neighbors,  learning  the  Spanish  language  readily, 
and  proving  themselves  valuable  house-servants. 
They  are  apathetic,  however,  and  none  of  the  Panos 
have  shown  any  earnest  desire  to  adopt  a  civilized 
life* 

The  Cashibos  are  the  most  savage  tribe  on  the 
Ucayali  or  its  affluents,  and  are  said  to  have  the  ugly 
custom  of  eating  their  relations  when  they  die,  and 
if  this  event  is  long  delayed,  the  old  men  are  killed. 
But  such  is  the  power  of  ideas,  that  one  of  the  obsta- 
cles to  their  conversion  is  that  they  so  much  prefer 
their  bodies  to  become  food  for  their  relatives  than  a 
feast  for  worms  !  f 

The  Pacaguaras  or  Pacavaras,  on  the  rivers  Beni 
and  Mamore,  classed  by  D'Orbigny  as  a  separate 
stock,  belong  among  the  Panos,  as  is  clearly  seen  by 
the  vocabulary  furnished  by  that  traveler,  and  later 
that  by  Mr.  Heath. :}:  The  easternmost  branch  of  the 
stock  (not  noted  by  M.  de  la  Grasserie),  are  the 
Canawarys  (Canamarys),  who  live  on  the  banks  of 
the  Purus.  Mr.  Chandless  heard  that  they  were 
related  to  the  Conibos,  and  the  few  words  he  ob- 
tained of  their  language  prove  the  statement  correct. § 

*  See  Dr.  L.  F.  Gait,  "  The  Indians  of  Peru,"  in  Report  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution,  1877,  p.  308,  sq. 

f  Professor  Antonio  Raimondi,  Apuntes  sobre  la  Provinda  de 
Loreto  (Lima,  1862),  trans,  by  Bollaert,  in  Jour.  Anthrop.  Insti- 
tute. He  states  that  they  speak  a  dialect  of  Pano. 

\  D'Orbigny,  L'Homme  Americain,  Tome  II.,  p.  262. 

\  W.  Chandless,  in  Jour,  of  the  RoyalGeog.  Soc.,  Vol.  XXXIX., 
p.  302  ;  Vol.  XXXVI.,  p.  n8. 


UPPER   AMAZONIAN  TRIBES.  29! 

PANO.  PACAGUARA.  CANAWARY. 

Sun,  barit  uari,  wari. 

Fire,  chi,  chi-i,  chi-i, 

Water,  uaca,  waka. 

Mr.  Chandless  also  says,  "  The  Conibos  are  of  the 
same  tribe  as  the  Manitenerys  of  the  river  Purus," 
which  would  bring  these  latter  also  into  the  Pano  stock. 
The  short  vocabulary  of  their  language  which  he 
supplies  does  not  bear  out  this  assertion.  Mr.  Rich- 
ard Spruce  considered  that  it  proved  them  to  be  of 
the  Carib  stock;*  but  to  me  it  seems  unmistakably  a 
member  of  the  Arawak  family,  as  will  be  seen  from 
the  following  analysis : 

MANITENERY.  ARAWAK  STOCK. 

Sun,  cashi,  catche. 

Moon,  siri,  casiri. 

Fire,  chi-chi,  chichi. 

Water,  huni,  uni. 

From  the  above  considerations  I  offer  the  following 
names  as  comprising  the 

PANO  LINGUISTIC  STOCK. 

Barbudos,  on  the  Maranon. 
Callisecas,  on  upper  Ucayali.f 
Canawarys,  on  Rio  Purus. 

*  Ibid.,  Vol.  XXXVI.,  p.  123,  note. 

f  The  Callisecas  are  now  no  longer  known  by  that  name  ;  but  J. 
Amich  has  given  sufficient  reasons  to  identify  them  as  the  ancestors 
of  the  tribe  later  known  as  the  Setibos.  See  his  Compendia  His- 
torico  de  la  Serafica  Religion  en  las  Montanas  de  los  Andes,  p.  29 
(Paris,  1854).  Lieutenant  Herndon,  however,  who  describes  them 
as  wearing  beards,  believed  they  were  the  ancient  Cashibos  (Ex- 
ploration of  the  Valley  of  the  Amazon,  p.  209.  Washington,  1853). 


292  THE  AMERICAN     RACE. 

Caripunas,  near  cataracts  of  Rio  Madeira. 
Cashibos,  on  Rio  Pachitea  and  Aguaitia. 
Chamicttros,  on  west  bank  of  the  Rio  Huallaga.* 
Cochivuinas,  a  sub-tribe  of  Mayorunas. 
Conibos,  on  upper  Ucayali. 
Culinos,  on  Rio  Juvary. 
Jaunavos,  see  Caripunas. 
Mayorunas,  on  Rio  Tapichi  and  Rio  Yavari. 
Maxorunas,  near  Rio  Tapichi. 
Panos,  on  upper  Ucayali. 
Pacaguaras,  on  Rio  Beni. 

Remos,  on  Ucayali,  from  Abayan  to  Chanchaguaya. 
Sends,  right  bank  of  Ucayali  above  Saraycu. 
Setibos  (Setevos),  on  upper  Ucayali.f 
Sipibos,  on  upper  Ucayali. 

Mr.  Chandless  met  on  the  rivers  Purus  and  Jurua 
tribes  of  a  stock  whose  tongue  I  have  not  been  able 
to  connect  with  any  other.  They  are  represented 
on  the  former  stream  by  the  Pammanas  or  Pam- 
marys  (pama-ouiri,  eaters  of  the  pama,  a  kind  of 
berry),  or  Puru-purus  (piru-poru,  name  of  a  skin 
disease  which  prevails  there),  whose  name  has  been 
transferred  to  the  river.  These  are  believed  by  Mar- 
tius  to  be  the  same  or  allied  to  the  Pamas,  a  tribe 
who  formerly  lived  on  the  Madeira,  but  were  driven 
thence  by  the  Caripunas.§  On  the  Jurua  are  the 

*  According  to  Veigl.     See  Miihridates,  III.,  II.  580,  581,  583. 

f  Called  also  Mananaguas,  "mountaineers,"  and  believed  by 
Waitz  to  have  been  the  Manoas  among  whom  an  old  missionary 
found  an  elder  of  the  tribe  rehearsing  thejannals  of  the  nation  from 
a  hieroglyphic  scroll  (Anthropologie  der  Naturvolker,  Bd.  III.,  s. 
541).  The  real  Manoas  or  Manaos  belong  to  the  Arawak  stock. 

|  W.  Chandless,  in  Journal  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society ', 
Vol.  XXXVI.,  p.  118  ;  Vol.  XXXIX.,  p.  311. 

\  Ethnographic  und  Sprachenkunde>  Bd.  I.,  s.  414. 


UPPER   AMAZONIAN   TRIBES.  293 

apparently  related  Arauas  and  Araicus.  All  these  de- 
pend on  hunting  and  fishing,  and  are  of  migratory 
habits.  Some  of  the  Pammanas  are  reported  as  light 
in  hue,  with  blue  eyes  and  brown  hair.* 

Many  tribes  with  names  differing  from  the  above 
are  recorded  by  the  older  writers  as  resident  on  these 
rivers,  but  owing  to  the  absence  of  linguistic  material, 
no  identification  is  possible. 

The  close  relationship  of  the  Pammarys  of  the 
Purus  and  the  Arauas  of  the  Jurua  is  shown  by  the 
following  comparison  : 

PAMMARY.  ARAUA. 

Moon,  massicu,  massicu. 

Fire,  siju,  sihu. 

Water,  paha,  paha. 

Dog,  djuimahi,  jumayhi. 

So  far  as  known,  I  would  place  the  following  tribes 
in  the 

ARAUA  LINGUISTIC  STOCK. 

Arauas  (Ara6},  on  the  lower  Jurua. 
Pamas,  formerly  on  the  Madeira. 
Pammarys,  on  the  Rio  Purus. 
Puru-purus,  on  the  Rio  Purus. 

The  jargon  of  the  Yaguas,  on  the  Amazon  between 
Nauta  and  Pebas,  seems  to  have  borrowed  from  this 
stock ;  as : 

YAGUA.  PAMMARY. 

Sun,  ini,  saf-iny. 

Water,  haha,  paha. 

The  neighbors  of  the  Arauas  on  the  river  Purus 

*  Von  Martius,  Ibid.,  p.  422, 


294  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

are  the  Hypurinas  (better  Jupurinas)  of  whose  lan- 
guage Mr.  Chandless  also  supplies  a  short  vocabu- 
lary. It  contains  a  few  words  in  common  with  the 
Pammary,  but  probably  only  borrowed  by  both  from 
the  Arawak.  The  following  will  illustrate  the  two 
tongues : 

PAMMARY.  JTJPURINA. 

Sun,  safiny,  atocanti. 

Moon,  massicu,  cassiri. 

Fire,  siju,  chamina. 

Water,  paha,  iborahai. 

River,  wainy,  weni. 

Dog,  djuimahi,  anguity. 

Tortoise,  u-jur&,  chetuyu. 

Tapir,  dama,  chama. 

The  Hypurinas  on  the  Rio  Acre  (or  Aquiri)  belong 
to  the  same  tribe.  They  are  said  to  be  related  to  the 
Chacobos  and  the  Piros  of  the  Ucayali.  They  are 
without  civilization.  The  women  go  naked,  but  the 
men  wear  long  purple  robes,  and  both  sexes  pierce 
the  lips  and  nose.  Some  agriculture  is  carried  on, 
but  hunting  and  fishing  are  the  main  sources  of  the 
food  supply.* 

The  total  number  of  natives  on  the  Purus  and  its 
affluents  was  estimated  by  Colonel  Labre,  in  1885,  at 
40,000,  "  speaking  forty  or  more  different  languages  ;  " 
but  this  last  assertion  we  may  take  with  large  allow- 
ance. Probably  not  over  four  or  five  stocks  are  rep- 
resented. The  same  explorer  names  nine  tribes  vis- 
ited by  him  on  the  river  Ituxy.  They  are  the  :  i, 
Caccharari ;  2,  Canamary ;  3,  Catauxi ;  4,  Guarayo  ; 

*  Scottish  Geographical  Magazine,  1890,  p.  242. 


THE   BOLIVIAN   HIGHLANDS.  295 

5,  Huatanary;  6,  Hypurina  ;  7,  Hyuma ;  8,  Pamana  ; 
and  9,  Pamary  tribes.* 

In  this  list,  as  elsewhere,  the  term  Guarayos  has 
no  ethnic  significance.  It  is  a  Tupi  word  applied  in 
this  Spanish  form  to  various  wild,  uncivilized  tribes. 

p.  The  Bolivian  Highlands  :  the  Chiquitos,  Yuru- 
cares,  Mosetenas,  Tacanas,  Samucus,  Canichanas 
and  others. 

On  the  Atlantic  face  of  the  Cordillera,  in  the  east- 
ernmost portion  of  Bolivia,  where  the  head-waters  of 
the  Madeira  are  known  by  the  names  of  the  Mamore, 
the  Guapai  and  the  Beni,  there  is  an  astonishing  va- 
riety of  linguistic  stocks.  It  would  seem  that  the 
broken  remnants  of  many  diverse  nations  had  sought 
refuge  in  the  deep  vales  and  dense  forests  of  this 
region. 

We  have  already  seen  that  the  Caribs  were  repre- 
sented here  by  the  Palmellas,  and  the  Arawaks  by 
the  Moxos  and  Baures.  South  of  the  Moxos  was 
the  extensive  region  of  the  Chiquitos,  stretching 
between  south  latitude  16°  and  18°,  and  from  the 
upper  affluents  of  the  Paraguay  river  to  the  summit 
of  the  Cordillera.  On  the  south  it  adjoined  the 
Gran  Chaco,  and  on  the  west  the  territory  of  the 
Kechuas.  They  were  a  medium-sized,  mild-mannered 
people,  mostly  of  little  culture,  depending  on  the 
chase  for  food,  but  willingly  adopting  the  agricul- 
tural life  recommended  to  them  by  the  missionaries. 
They  were  divided  into  a  vast  number  of  small  rov- 
ing bands,  the  most  important  group  of  which  were 

*  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Geog.  Society,  1889,  p.  501. 


296  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

the  Manacicas,  whose  homes  were  near  Lake  Xaray, 
about  the  head-waters  of  the  Paraguay.  Their 
myths  relating  to  a  male  and  female  deity  and  their 
son  reminded  the  Jesuits  of  the  Christian  Trinity.* 
The  Manacicas  were  agriculturists  and  remarkably 
skilful  potters.  The  villages  they  constructed  were 
surrounded  with  palisades  and  divided  by  broad 
streets.  The  corpses  of  the  dead  were  deposited  in 
underground  vaults,  and  both  property  and  rank 
passed  in  the  male  line  to  the  sons  of  the  deceased. 

The  Chiquito  language  is  interesting  for  its  scope 
and  flexibility,  being  chiefly  made  up  of  generic  par- 
ticles capable  of  indefinite  combination. f  It  is  sin- 
gular in  having  no  numerals,  not  even  as  far  as  three. 
Its  four  principal  dialects  were  those  of  the  Taos,  the 
Piflocos,  the  Manacicas  and  the  Penoquies.  ^  It  was 
selected  by  the  missionaries  as  the  medium  of  instruc- 
tion for  a  number  of  the  neighboring  tribes. 

Of  such  tribes  there  were  many,  widely  different  in 
speech,  manners  and  appearance  from  the  Chiquitos. 
Some  of  them  are  particularly  noteworthy  for  their 
un-Indian  type.  Thus,  to  the  west  of  the  Chiquitos, 
on  the  banks  of  the  rivers  Mamore  and  Chavari,  were 

*  Muratori,  //  Cristianesimo  Felice,  p.  27  (Venezia,  1743). 
Father  Fernandez  gives  the  names  of  69  bands  of  the  Manacicas 
(Lettres  Edifiantes  et  Curieuses,  Tom.  II.,  p.  174). 

f  A  grammar  of  it  has  been  edited  by  MM.  Adam  and  Henry, 
Arte  de  la  lengua  Chiquita,  Paris,  1880.  (Bibliotheque  Linguis- 
tique  Americaine,  Tom.  VI.)  The  sub-divisions  of  the  Chiquitos 
are  so  numerous  that  I  refrain  from  encumbering  my  pages  with 
them.  See  D'Orbigny,  L'Homme  Americain,  Tom.  II.,  p.  154, 
and  authorities  there  quoted. 

J  Hervas,  Catalogo  de  las  Lenguas  Conoddas,  Tom.  I.,  p.  159. 


THE   BOLIVIAN  HIGHLANDS.  297 

the  Yurucares,  the  Tacanas  and  the  Mosetenas,  all 
neighbors,  and  though  not  of  one  tongue,  yet  alike 
in  possessing  a  singularly  white  skin  and  fine  feat- 
ures. Their  color  is  as  light  and  as  really  white  as 
many  southern  Europeans,  the  face  is  oval,  the  nose 
straight,  fine,  and  often  aquiline,  the  lips  thin,  the 
cheek-bones  not  prominent,  the  eyes  small,  dark  and 
horizontal,  the  expression  free  and  noble.  They  are 
of  pure  blood,  and  the  most  important  tribe  of  them 
derived  their  name,  Yurucares,  white  men,  from 
their  Kechua  neighbors  before  the  conquest.  They 
are  usually  uncommonly  tall  (i.  75),  bold  warriors, 
lovers  of  freedom  and  given  to  a  hunting  life.  The 
women  are  often  even  taller  and  handsomer  than  the 
men. 

The  traveler  D'Orbigny  suggested  that  this  light 
color  arose  from  their  residence  under  the  shade  of 
dense  forests  in  a  hot  and  humid  atmosphere.  He 
observed  that  many  of  them  had  large  patches  of 
albinism  on  their  persons.* 

The  branches  of  these  stocks  may  be  classed  as 
follows: 


*  Alcide  D'Orbigny,  L'Homme  Americain,  Vol.  I.,  p.  356,  sq. 
Among  the  D'Orbigny  MSS.  in  the  Bibliotheque  Nationale,  I  found 
an  inedited  grammar  and  dictionary  of  the  Yurucari  language.  It 
would  be  very  desirable  to  have  this  published,  as  our  present 
knowledge  of  the  tongue  rests  on  a  few  imperfect  vocabularies. 
The  work  is  doubtless  that  by  P.  la  Cueva,  mentioned  in  H.  Lude- 
wig,  Lit.  of  Amer.  Aborig.  Languages,  p.  206  ;  but  the  author  and 
editor  of  that  work  were  in  error  in  classing  the  Tacana  and  Maropa 
as  members  of  the  Yurucari  stock.  They  belong  to  a  different 
family. 


298  THE  AMERICAN   RACE. 

YURUCARI  LINGUISTIC  STOCK. 

Conis.  Enetes.  Mansinos.  Solostos. 

Cuchis  Mages.  Oromos. 

MOSETENA  LINGUISTIC  STOCK. 

Chimanis.  Maniquies.  Muchanis.  Tucupis. 

Magdalenos. 

The  Toromonas  occupy  the  tract  between  the 
Madre  de  Dios  and  the  Madidi,  from  12°  to  13°  south 
latitude.  According  to  D'Orbigny  they  are,  together 
with  the  Atenes,  Cavinas,  Tumupasas  and  Isuiamas, 
members  of  one  stock,  speaking  dialects  of  the  Tacana 
language.  He  was  unable  to  procure  a  vocabulary  of 
it,  and  only  learned  that  it  was  exceedingly  guttural 
and  harsh.*  From  their  position  and  their  Kechua 
name  (tuyii),  low  or  swamp  land,  I  am  inclined  to 
identify  the  Toromonas  with  the  Tuyumiris  or  Puka- 
pakaris,  who  are  stated  formerly  to  have  dwelt  on  the 
Madre  de  Dios  and  east  of  the  Rio  Urubamba,  and  to 
have  been  driven  thence  by  the  Sirineris  (Tschudi). 

According  to  recent  authorities  the  Cavinas  speak 
the  same  tongue  as  the  Araunas  on  the  Madre  de 
Dios,  which  are  separated  from  the  Pacaguaras  by  the 
small  river  Genichiquia ;  f  and  as  the  language  of 
the  Toromonas  is  called  in  the  earlier  accounts  of  the 
missions  Macarani,  I  may  make  out  the  following 
list  of  the  members  of  the 

TACANA  LINGUISTIC  STOCK. 


Araunas. 
Atenes. 
Cavinas. 
Equaris. 

Isuiamas. 
Lecos. 
Macaranis. 
Maropas. 

Pukapakaris. 
Sapiboconas. 
Tacanas. 
Toromonas. 

Tumupasas. 
Tuyumiris. 

*  L'f/omme  Americain,  Tom.  I.,  p.  374. 
t  Scottish  Geogtaphical  Magazine >  1890. 


!  THE   BOLIVIAN   HIGHLANDS.  299 

The  Araunas  are  savage,  and  according  to  Heath 
"  cannibals  beyond  a  doubt."  He  describes  them  as 
"  gaunt,  ugly,  and  ill  formed,"  wearing  the  hair 
long  and  going  naked.*  Colonel  Labre,  however, 
who  visited  several  of  their  villages  in  1885,  found 
them  sedentary  and  agricultural,  with  temples  and 
idols,  the  latter  being  geometrical  figures  of  polished 
wood  and  stone.  Women  were  considered  impure, 
were  not  allowed  to  know  even  the  names  of  the 
gods,  and  were  excluded  from  religious  rites.f  The 
Cavinas,  on  the  other  hand,  are  described  by  early 
writers  as  constructing  houses  of  stone. :{:  The  Maro- 
pas,  on  the  east  side  of  the  river  Beni  near  the  little 
town  of  Reyes,  speak  a  dialect  of  Tacana  as  close  to 
it  as  Portuguese  to  Spanish.  They  are  erroneously 
classed  as  a  distinct  nation  by  D'Orbigny,  who  ob- 
tained only  a  few  words  of  their  tongue.  The  Sapibo- 
conas,  who  lived  at  the  Moxos  Mission,  and  of  whose 
dialect  Hervas  supplies  a  vocabulary,  are  also  a  near 
branch  of  the  stock.  We  now  have  sufficient  material 
to  bring  these  tribes  into  relation.  With  them  I 
locate  the  Lecos,  the  tribe  who  occupied  the  mission 
of  Aten,  and  are  therefore  called  also  Atenianos.§  At 
present  some  civilized  Lecos  live  at  the  mission  of 


*  B.  Heath,  Kansas  City  Review,  April,  1883.  He  gives  vocabu- 
laries of  Tacana  and  Maropa.  A  devotional  work  has  been  printed 
in  Tacana. 

f  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society,  1889,  p.  498. 

\  De  Laet,  quoted  in  Mithridates,  Th.  III.,  Ab.  II.,  s.  577. 

\  "  En  Aten  se  habla  la  Leca  por  ser  este  pueblo  de  Indies  Lecos." 
Description  de  las  Misiones  de  Apolobamba  (Lima,  1771). 


300  THE  AMERICAN   RACE. 

Guanay,  between  the  Beni  and  Titicaca ;  but  we  have 
nothing  of  their  language.* 

The  Tacana  dialects  present  a  number  of  verbal 
analogies  to  Kechua  and  Aymara ;  so  many  in  fact 
that  they  testify  to  long  inter-communion  between 
the  stocks,  though  I  think  not  to  a  radical  identity. 
I  present  a  few  : 

TACANA.  KECHUA. 

Man,  reand,  runa. 

Water,  jene,  una. 

Hand,  ma,  maqui. 

Foot,  quatri,  chaqui. 

House,  etai,  uta  (Aymara). 

Stone,  tutnu,  rumt. 

Star,  etnata,  tnatti. 

lightning,  ilapa,  illapa. 

Year,  mara,  mara. 

Three,  qidmishat  quimsa. 

Four,  puschi,  fusi  (Aymara). 

Five,  pischica,  pichka. 

The  numerals  above  "two"  have  clearly  been  bor- 
rowed from  the  Kechua-Aymara. 

There  are  also  a  large  number  of  verbal  coinci- 
dences between  the  Tacana  and  the  Pano  groups,  but 
not  enough  to  allow  us  to  suppose  an  original  unity. 

The  Samucus  (Zamucas)  embraced  a  number  of 
sub-tribes  dwelling  on  the  northern  border  of  the 
Chaco,  between  18°  and  20°  south  latitude,  and  about 
the  river  Oxuquis.  They  did  not  resemble  the  Chaco 
stocks,  as  they  were  not  vagrant  hunters,  but  dwelt 


*  Weddell,  Voyage  dans  la  Bolivie,  p.  453  (quoted  by  Waitz). 


THE   BOLIVIAN   HIGHLANDS.  30! 

in  fixed  villages,  and  pursued  an  agricultural  life.* 
Their  language  was  singularly  sweet  in  sound,  and  was 
called  by  D'Orbigny  "  the  Italian  of  the  forest."  They 
included  the  following  members: 

SAMUCU  LINGUISTIC   STOCK. 

Careras.  Cuculados.  Morotocos.  Tapios. 

•     Cayporotades.       Guaranocas.          Potureros.  Ugaronos. 

Coroinos.  Ibirayas.  Satienos. 

Among  these  the  Morotocos  are  said  to  have  offered 
the  rare  spectacle  of  a  primitive  gynocracy.  The 
women  ruled  the  tribe,  and  obliged  the  men  to  perform 
the  drudgery  of  house-work.  The  latter  were  by  no 
means  weaklings,  but  tall  and  robust,  and  daring  tiger- 
hunters.  The  married  women  refused  to  have  more 
than  two  children,  and  did  others  come  they  were 
strangled. 

On  the  river  Mamore,  between  13°  and  14°  of 
south  latitude,  were  the  numerous  villages  of  the 
Canichanas  or  Canisianas.  They  were  unusually 
dark  in  complexion  and  ugly  of  features  ;  nor  did  this 
unprepossessing  exterior  belie  their  habits  or  tem- 
perament. They  were  morose,  quarrelsome,  tricky 
and  brutal  cannibals,  preferring  theft  to  agriculture, 
and  prone  to  drunkenness;  but  ingenious  and  not 
deficient  in  warlike  arts,  constructing  strong  fortifi- 
cations around  their  villages,  from  which  they  would 
sally  forth  to  harass  and  plunder  their  peaceable 

*  Most  of  the  Samucus  were  gathered  at  the  mission  of  St.  Igna- 
tius. Father  Chome*  remarks,  "  Les  Zamucos,  Cuculados,  Tapios 
et  (Jgaronos  parlent  a  pen  pre"s  la  meme  langue."  Lettres  Edifi- 
antes,  Tome  II.,  p.  191.  See  also  D'Orbigny,  L'ffomnie  Ameri- 
caint  Tom.  II.,  p.  142. 


302  THE  AMERICAN   RACE. 

neighbors.  By  a  singular  anomaly,  this  unpromising 
tribe  became  willing  converts  to  the  teachings  of  the 
Jesuits,  and  of  their  own  accord  gathered  into  large 
villages  in  order  to  secure  the  presence  of  a  mission- 
ary.* Their  language  has  no  known  affinities.  It 
is  musical,  with  strong  consonantal  sounds,  and  like 
some  of  the  northern  tongues,  makes  a  distinction 
between  animate  and  inanimate  objects,  or  those  so 
considered,  f 

Between  13°  and  14°  of  south  latitude,  on  the  west 
bank  of  the  Rio  Mamore,  were  the  Caynbabas  or 
Cayuvavas,  speaking  a  language  without  known  affin- 
ities, though  containing  words  from  a  number  of  con- 
tiguous tongues.  \  The  men  are  tall  and  robust,  with 
regular  features  and  a  pleasant  expression.  The  mis- 
sionaries found  no  difficulty  in  bringing  them  into  the 
fold,  but  they  obstinately  retained  some  of  their 
curious  ancient  superstitions,  as,  for  instance,  that  a 
man  should  do  no  kind  of  work  while  his  wife  had  her 
monthly  illness ;  and  should  she  die,  he  would  under- 
take no  enterprise  of  importance  so  long  as  he  re- 
mained a  widower.  § 

Brief  notices  will  suffice  of  the  various  other  tribes, 
many  of  them  now  extinct,  who  centered  around  the 
missions  of  the  Chiquitos  and  Moxos  early  in  this 
century. 

*D'Orbigny,  L'Homme  Americain,  Tome  II.,  p.  247. 

t  Professor  E.  Teza  gives  some  texts  in  his  Saggi  Inediti  di  Lin- 
gue  Americans,  pp.  40,  41  ;  and  Mr.  E.  Heath  has  supplied  a 
careful  vocabulary  of  recent  date  (Kansas  City  Review,  April,  1883). 

J  Texts  of  the  Pater,  Ave  and  Credo  are  given  by  E.  Teza,  Saggi 
Inediti  di  Lingue  Americane,  p.  51. 

\  D'Orbigny,  V Homnte  Americain,  T»me  II.,  p.  257. 


THE   BOLIVIAN   HIGHLANDS.  303 

The  Apolistas  took  their  name  from  the  river  Apolo, 
an  affluent  of  the  Beni,  about  south  latitude  15°. 
They  were  contiguous  to  the  Aymaras,  and  had  some 
physical  resemblance  to  them.  From  their  position,  I 
suspect  they  belong  in  the  Tacana  group. 

The  Chapacuras,  or  more  properly  Tapacuras,  were 
on  the  Rio  Blanco  or  Baures  in  the  province  of  Moxos. 
They  called  themselves  Huachis,  and  the  Quitemocas 
are  mentioned  as  one  of  their  sub-tribes.  Von  Martius 
thinks  they  were  connected  with  the  Guaches  of  Para- 
guay,  a  mixed  tribe  allied  to  the  Guaycuru  stock  of 
the  Chaco.  The  resemblance  is  very  slight. 

The  Covarecas  were  a  small  band  at  the  mission  of 
Santa  Anna,  about  south  latitude  17°.  Their  language 
was  practically  extinct  in  1831. 

The  Curaves  and  the  Curuminacas,  the  former  on 
the  Rio  Tucubaca  and  the  latter  north  of  them  near 
the  Brazil  line,  were  said  to  have  independent  lan- 
guages ;  but  both  were  extinct  at  the  time  of  D'Or- 
bigny's  visit  in  1831.  The  same  was  true  of  the  Cora- 
be  cas  and  Curiicanccas. 

The  Ites  or  Itenes  were  upon  the  river  Iten,  an  af- 
fluent of  the  Mamore  about  12°  south  latitude.  They 
were  sometimes  improperly  called  Guarayos,  a  term 
which,  like  Guaycurus,  Aucas,  Yumbos  and  others, 
was  frequently  applied  in  a  generic  sense  by  the 
Spanish  Americans  to  any  native  tribe  who  continued 
to  live  in  a  savage  condition. 

The  Mommas  (Mobimas)  occupied  the  shores  of  the 
Rio  Yacuma,  and  Rio  Mamore  about  14°  south  lati- 
tude. In  character  and  appearance  they  were  similar 
to  the  Moxos,  but  of  finer  physique,  "  seldom  ever 


304  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

under  six  feet,"  says  Mr.  Heath.  They  are  now  civil- 
ized, and  very  cleanly  in  their  habits.  The  vocab- 
ularies of  their  language  show  but  faint  resemblances 
with  any  other. 

The  Otuguis,  who  in  1831  did  not  number  over  150 
persons,  lived  in  the  northeast  part  of  the  province  of 
Chiquitos  near  the  Brazilian  line.  Their  language  was 
nearly  extinct  at  that  time.  The  short  vocabulary  of 
it  preserved  by  D'Orbigny  does  not  disclose  connec- 
tions with  other  stocks,  unless  it  be  a  distant  affinity 
with  the  Tacana  group.  This  may  be  illustrated  by 
the  following  words  : 

OTUQUI.  TACANA  DIALECTS. 

Man,  vuani,  reanci. 

Woman,  vuaneti,  anu. 

Sun,  neri,  ireti. 

Moon,  art,  bari. 

Water,  uru,  yuvi. 

Head,  ikitao,  ekuya. 

It  was  the  policy  of  the  Jesuits  in  their  missions  in 
this  district  to  gather  the  tribes  from  the  forest  and 
mountain  into  permanent  settlements,  and  reduce  as 
far  as  possible  the  number  of  languages  and  dialects, 
so  as  to  facilitate  instruction  in  religious  teaching. 
Shortly  after  this  Order  was  expelled  from  their  mis- 
sions (1767),  an  official  report  on  their  "reductions" 
was  printed  in  Peru,  giving  a  list  of  the  tribes  at  each 
station,  and  the  languages  in  use  for  instruction.* 

*  Description  de  las  Misiones  del  Alto  Peru,  i2mo,  Lima,  1771. 
The  only  copy  of  this  work  which  I  have  seen,  and  that  an  imper- 
fect one,  is  in  the  Collection  Angrand,  in  the  Bibliotheque  Nation- 
ale,  Paris.  Among  the  MSS.  of  this  great  library  is  a  Confession- 


THE   BOLIVIAN   HIGHLANDS.  305 

From  this  scarce  work  I  extract  a  few  interesting 
particulars. 

The  province  of  Apolobamba  is  described  as  ex- 
tending about  eighty  leagues  northeast-southwest, 
east  of  the  Cordillera,  and  west  of  the  Rio  Beni.  The 
languages  adopted  in  it  were  the  Leca,  spoken  by  the 
Lecos  Indians  at  the  mission  of  Aten,  and  the  Mara- 
cani,  at  the  mission  of  Tumupasa,  on  the  Rio  Beni. 
Fojt^doilie__natiQLlis  are  named  as  belonging  to  the 
mission  of  the  Chiquitos,  each  of  whom  is  stated  to 
have  spoken  a  different  language  or  dialect,  though 
all  were  instructed  in  their  religious  duties  in  Chi- 
quito.  At  the  mission  of  Moxos  twenty-nine  tribes 
are  named  as  in  attendance,  but  it  had  not  been  found 
possible,  such  was  the  difference  of  their  speech,  to 
manage  with  less  than  nine  languages,  to  wit,  the 
Moxa,  the  Baure,  the  Mure,  the  Mobima,  the  Ocorona, 
the  Cayubaba,  the  Itonama  and  the  Maracani.* 

Of  these  tongues  I  have  classed  the  Leca  and  Mara- 
cani as  dialects  of  the  Takana,  not  from  comparison 
of  vocabularies,  for  I  have  seen  none  of  either,  but 
from  the  locations  of  the  tribes  speaking  them.  The 
Moxa  and  Baure  are  dialects  of  the  Arawak  stock. 
The  Mura  is  a  branch  of  the  Tupi,  spoken  by  the 
powerful  tribe  of  the  Muras  on  the  Medeira  and  Ama- 

ario  in  Itonama,  which  should  be  published  as  perhaps  the  only 
text  of  the  language  extant.  Some  remarks  on  its  phonetics  may 
be  found  in  D'Orbigny,  L'Homme  Americain,  Tome  II.,  p.  239. 

*  According  to  Father  Fernandez  there  were,  in  1726,  30,000  con- 
verts under  the  care  of  the  Moxos  Mission,  and  fifteen  different 
languages  were  spoken,  "  qui  ne  se  ressemblent  nullement."  Let- 
tres  Edifizr.te!:,  Tom.  II.,  p.  161. 


306  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

zon,  who  distinctly  recalled  in  tradition  their  ances- 
tral home  in  the  west.*  The  Chiquito,  the  Mobima, 
the  Caniciana(Canichana),  the  Cayubaba,  the  Itonaina 
and  the  Ocorona  remain  so  far  irreducible  stocks. 
Vocabularies  of  the  first  five  have  been  preserved,  but 
nothing  of  the  Ocorona.  It  is  probably  identical  with 
the  Rocorona,  in  which  Professor  Teza  has  published 
some  texts.f  I  have  not  been  able  to  identify  it 
with  any  other  tongue.  Hervas  unites  both  with  the 
Herisebocona  as  a  single  stock.  ^ 

2.   THE   PAMPEAN   REGION. 

South  of  the  dividing  upland  which  separates  the 
waters  of  the  Amazon  from  those  which  find  their 
way  to  the  Rio  de  la  Plata,  the  continent  extends  in 
broad  level  tracts,  watered  by  numerous  navigable 
streams  and  rich  in  game  and  fish.  Its  chief  phys- 
ical features  are  the  wooded  and  rolling  Chaco  in  the 
north,  the  treeless  and  grassy  Pampas  to  the  south, 
and  the  sterile  rocky  plains  of  Patagonia  still  further 
toward  the  region  of  cold.  In  the  west  the  chain  of 
the  Cordilleras  continues  to  lift  its  summits  to  an  in- 
accessible height  until  they  enter  Patagonia,  when 
they  gradually  diminish  to  a  range  of  hills. 

The  tribes  of  all  this  territory,  both  east  and  west 

*  See  von  Martius,  Ethnographic  und  Sprachenkunde,  Bd.  I.,  s. 
412.  Professor  Teza  gives  the  Pater,  Ave  and  Credo  in  the  Mura 
dialect  of  Bolivia  (Saggi  inediti  di  Lingue  Americane,  p.  43). 

f  A  Pater,  an  Ave  and  a  Credo.  Saggi  inediti  di  LingueAmeri- 
cane,  pp.  48,  49.  The  author  of  the  Description,  however,  dis- 
tinguishes between  the  Ocoronos  and  the  Rotoronos,  both  at  the 
Moxos  Mission. 

J  See  Mithridates,  Th.  II.,  s.  577. 


THE   PAMPEAN   REGION.  307 

of  the  Andes,  belong  ethnographically  together,  and 
not  with  the  Peruvian  stocks.  What  affinities  they 
present  to  others  to  the  north  are  with  those  of  the 
Amazonian  regions. 

i.   The  Gran   CJiaco  and  its  Stocks.     The  Guaycurus, 

Lules,     Matacos    and    Payaguas.       The    Charruas, 

Guatos,  Calchaquis,  etc. 

The  great  streams  of  the  Parana  and  Paraguay  offer 
a  natural  boundary  between  the  mountainous  country 
of  southern  Brazil  and  the  vast  plains  of  the  Pampas 
formation.  In  their  upper  course  these  rivers  form 
extensive  marshes,  which  in  the  wet  season  are  trans- 
formed into  lakes  on  which  tangled  masses  of  reeds 
and  brushwood,  knitted  together  by  a  lush  growth  of 
vines,  swim  in  the  lazy  currents  as  floating  islands. 
These  were  the  homes  of  some  wild  tribes  who  there 
found  a  secure  refuge,  the  principal  of  whom  were  the 
Caracaras,  who  came  from  the  lower  Parana,  and  were 
one  of  the  southernmost  offshoots  of  theTupi  family.* 

For  five  hundred,  miles  west  of  the  Parana  and  ex- 
tending nearly  as  far  from  north  to  south,  is  a  wide, 
rolling  country,  well  watered,  and  usually  covered 
with  dense  forests,  called  El  Gran  Chaco.f  Three 
noble  rivers,  the  Pilcomayo,  the  Vermejo  and  the 
Salado,  intersect  it  in  almost  parallel  courses  from 
northwest  to  southeast. 

*  The  Capesacos  and  Menepes  were  others.  Nicolas  del  Techo, 
Historia  Provinces  Paraquariee,  Lib.  XII.,  cap.  33. 

f  The  word  chaco,  properly  chacu,  in  Kechua  is  applied  to  game 
driven  into  pens.  Lozano  says  it  was  used  metaphorically  in  ref- 
erence to  the  numerous  tribes  driven  from  their  homes  into  the 
forests  (Descrip.  Chornograph.  del  Gran  Chaco,  p.  i). 


308  THE   AMERICAN    RACE. 

Abounding  in  fish  and  game  and  with  a  mild 
climate,  the  Chaco  has  always  been  densely  peopled, 
and  even  to-day  its  native  population  is  estimated  at 
over  twenty  thousand.  But  the  ethnology  of  these 
numerous  tribes  is  most  obscure.  The  Jesuit  mis- 
sionaries asserted  that  they  found  eight  totally  differ- 
ent languages  on  the  Rio  Vermejo  alone,"*  and  the 
names  of  the  tribes  run  up  into  the  hundreds. 

As  is  generally  the  case  with  such  statements,  dis- 
tant dialects  of  the  same  stock  were  doubtless  mis- 
taken for  radically  distinct  tongues.  From  all  the 
material  which  is  accessible,  I  do  not  think  that  the 
Chaco  tribes  number  more  than  five  stocks,  even  in- 
cluding those  who  spoke  idioms  related  to  the  Guar- 
ani  or  Tupi.  The  remainder  are  the  Guaycuru,  the 
Mataco,  the  Lule  and  the  Payagua.  This  conclusion 
is  identical  with  that  reached  by  the  Argentine 
writer,  Don  Luis  J.  Fontana,  except  that  he  considers 
the  Chunipi  independent,  while  I  consider  that  it  is  a 
member  of  the  Mataco  stock. 

One  of  the  best  known  members  of  the  Guaycuru 
stock  was  the  tribe  of  the  Abipones,  whose  manners 
and  customs  were  rendered  familiar  in  the  last  century 
through  the  genial  work  of  the  Styrian  missionary, 
Martin  Dobrizhoffer.f  They  were  an  equestrian  peo- 
ple, proud  of  their  horsemanship  and  their  herds,  and 
at  that  time  dwelt  on  the  Paraguay  river,  but  by 
tradition  had  migrated  from  the  north. 

The    Guaycurus    proper    were    divided    into     three 

*  Del  Techo,  ubi  suprd,  Lib.  I.,  cap.  41. 

t  Historia  de  Abiponibus,  Vienna,  1784.  An  English  transla- 
tion, London,  1822. 


THE   GRAN  CHACO.  309 

gentes  (parcialidadcs)  located  with  reference  to  the 
cardinal  points.  On  the  north  were  the  Epicua- 
yiqui ;  on  the  west  the  Napin-yiqui,  and  on  the 
south  the  Taqui-yiqui.  Their  original  home  was  on 
the  Rio  Paraguay,  two  hundred  leagues  from  its 
mouth,  but  later  they  removed  to  the  banks  of  the 
Pilcomayo.  Their  system  was  patriarchal,  the  sons  in- 
heriting direct  from  the  father,  and  they  were  divided 
into  hereditary  castes,  from  which  it  was  difficult  to 
emerge.  These  were  distinguished  by  different  colors 
employed  in  painting  the  skin.  The  highest  caste, 
the  nabbidigan,  were  distinguished  by  black.* 

The  Abipones  were  almost  entirely  destroyed  early 
in  this  century  by  the  Tobas  and  Mbocobis,f  and 
probably  at  present  they  are  quite  extinct.  The 
Tobas  are  now  the  most  numerous  tribe  in  the  Chaco, 
and  their  language  the  most  extended.^  They  re- 
main savage  and  untamable,  and  it  was  to  their  fe- 
rocity that  Dr.  Cr£vaux,  the  eminent  French  geog- 
rapher and  anthropologist,  fell  a  victim  in  recent 
years.  The  dialects  of  the  Abipones,  Mbocobis  and 
Tobas  were  "  as  much  alike  as  Spanish  and  Portu- 
guese "  (Dobrizhoffer). 

The  Guachis  speak  a  rather  remote  dialect  of  the 
stock,  but  undoubtedly  connected  with  the  main 

*  Pedro  Lozano,  Description  del  Gran  Chaco,  pp.  62-65. 

f  "  C'est  ^peine  s'il  en  reste  aujourd  hui  trois  ou  quatre  indi- 
vidus."  D'Orbigny  MS.  in  the  Bibliotheque  Nationale.  This 
was  written  about  1834. 

t  A.  J.  Carranza,  Expedition  al  Chaco  Austral,  p.  422  (Buenos 
Aires,  1884).  This  author  gives  a  useful  vocabulary  of  the  Toba, 
together  with  a  number  of  familiar  phrases. 


310  THE   AMERICAN    RACE. 

stem.  According  to  the  analogy  of  many  of  their 
words  and  the  tenor  of  tradition,  they  at  one  time 
lived  in  the  Bolivian  highlands,  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
Moxos  and  Chiquitos.  It  is  probable  that  they  are 
now  nearly  extinct,  as  for  several  generations  infanti- 
cide has  been  much  in  vogue  among  them,  prompted, 
it  is  said,  by  superstitious  motives.  Forty  years  ago 
an  inconspicuous  remnant  of  them  were  seen  by  Cas- 
telnau  and  Natterer  in  the  vicinity  of  Miranda.* 

The  Malbalas,  who  were  a  sub-tribe  of  the  Mbo- 
cobis,  dwelling  on  the  Rio  Vermejo,  are  described  as 
light  in  color,  with  symmetrical  figures  and  of  kindly 
and  faithful  disposition.  Like  most  of  the  Chaco 
tribes,  they  were  monogamous,  and  true  to  their 
wives.f 

The  Terenos  and  the  Cadiodos  still  survive  on  the 
upper  Paraguay,  and  are  in  a  comparatively  civilized 
condition.  The  latter  manufacture  a  pottery  of  un- 
usually excellent  quality.:}: 

On  the  authority  of  Father  Lozano  I  include  in 
this  stock  the  Chichas-Orejones,  the  Churumatas, 
that  branch  of  the  Mataguayos  called  Mataguayos 
Churumatas  (from  the  frequent  repetition  of  the  syl- 
lable cJiu  in  their  dialect),  the  Mbocobies  and  Yapi- 
talaguas,  whose  tongues  were  all  closely  related  to 

*  A  comparison  of  their  tongue  is  instituted  by  Martins,  Ethno- 
graphie  und  Sprachenkunde,  Bd.  II.,  s.  131.  See  also  Ibid.,  Bd.  I., 
s.  244. 

t  Lozano,  Descripcion  Chorographica  del  Gran  Chaco,  p.  83. 

%  Richard  Rohde,  in  Orig.  Mitt,  Eth.  Abth.  Konig.  Mus.,  1885, 
s.  13.  Von  Martius  identified  the  Cadioe'os  with  the  Cadigues  of 
the  Payaguas,  which  is  open  to  doubt  (Ethnographie,  Bd.  I.,  226). 


THE   GRAN   CHACO.  31 1 

the  Toba ;  *  while  Dr.  Joao  Severiano  da  Fonseca 
has  recently  shown  that  the  Quiniquinaux  is  also  a 
branch  of  this  stock.f 

The  Lules  are  a  nation  which  has  been  a  puzzle 
for  students  of  the  ethnography  of  the  Chaco.  They 
were  partly  converted  by  the  celebrated  Jesuit  mis- 
sionary and  eminent  linguist,  Father  Alonso  de  Bar- 
cena,  in  1690,  who  wrote  a  grammar  of  their  lan- 
guage, which  he  called  the  Tonicote.  The  Jesuit 
historian  of  Paraguay,  Del  Techo,  states  that  three 
languages  were  spoken  among  them,  the  Tonicote, 
the  Kechua  and  the  Cacana,  which  last  is  a  Kechua 
term  from  caca,  mountain,  and  in  this  connection 
means  the  dialect  of  the  mountaineers.  Barcena's 
converts  soon  became  discontented  and  fled  to  the 
forests,  where  they  disappeared  for  thirty  years  or 
more.  About  1730,  a  number  of  them  reappeared  near 
the  Jesuit  mission  of  the  Chaco,  and  settled  several 
towns  on  the  rivers  Valbuena  and  Salado.  There 
their  language  was  studied  by  the  missionaries.  A 
grammar  of  it  was  composed  by  Machoni,^:  and  a  vo- 
cabulary collected  by  the  Abb6  Ferragut.§  Mean- 
while the  work  of  Barcena  had  disappeared,  and  the 
Abb£  Hervas  expressed  a  doubt  whether  the  Lule  of 
Machoni  was  the  same  as  that  of  his  predecessor. 
He  advanced  the  opinion  that  the  ancient  Lule  was 

*  Description  del  Gran  Chaco,  pp.  73,  76,  77. 

t  Compte-Rendu  du  Cong.  Internal,  des  Americanistes,  1888,  p. 
510,  quoted  by  M.  Lucien  Adam. 

\Arte  y  Vocabulario  de  la  Lengua  Lule  y  Tonicote  (Madrid, 
1732)- 

\  Printed  in  Gilii,  Saggio  di  Storia  Americana,  Tom.  III.,  p.  363. 


312  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

the  Cacana  ;  that  the  modern  were  not  the  descendants 
of  the  ancient  Lules,  and  that  the  Mataras  of  the 
Chaco  were  the  Tonicotes  to  whom  Barcena  was 
apostle.* 

The  missionary  Lozano  to  some  extent  clears  up 
this  difficulty.  He  states  that  the  Lules  or  Tonicotes 
were  divided  into  the  greater  and  lesser  Lules,  and  it 
is  only  the  latter  to  which  the  name  properly  be- 
longed. The  former  were  divided  into  three  bands, 
the  Isistines,  the  Oristines,  and  the  Toquistines.f 
None  of  these  latter  existed  under  these  names  at  the 
close  of  the  last  century,  and  at  present  no  tribe 
speaking  the  Lule  of  Machoni  is  known  in  the  Chaco. 
The  language  has  evident  affinities  both  with  the 
Vilela  and  the  Mataco,^:  but  also  presents  many  inde- 
pendent elements.  The  statement  of  Hervas,  copied 
by  various  subsequent  writers,§  that  the  ancient  or 
greater  Lules  spoke  the  Cacana,  and  that  this  was  a 
different  stock  from  the  Lule  of  Machoni,  lacks  proof, 
as  we  have  no  specimen  of  the  Cacana,  and  not  even 
indirect  knowledge  of  its  character.  Indeed,  Del 
Techo  says  definitely  that  the  missionaries  of  the 
earliest  period,  who  were  familiar  with  the  Lule  of 
that  time,  had  to  employ  interpreters  in  ministering 
to  the  Cacanas.|| 

*  Catalogo  de  las  Lenguas  Conocidas,  Tom.  I.,  pp.  165-173. 

f  Pedro  Lozano,  Description  Chorographica  del  Gran  Chaco,  pp. 
94-97  (Cordoba,  1733). 

i  As  shown  by  Adelung,  Mithridates,  Bd.  II.,  s.  508. 

\  S.  A.  L.  Quevede  has  undertaken  to  show  that  the  real  Lule 
were  the  hill  tribes  of  the  Anconquija  range  and  their  tongue  the 
Cacana  {American  Anthropologist,  1890,  p.  64). 

||  Del  Techo,  Historia  Provincice  Paraquarice,  Lib.  II.,  cap.  20. 


CHACO   STOCKS.  313 

The  modern  Vilelas  live  on  the  Rio  Salado,  be- 
tween 25°  and  26°  south  latitude.  I  find  in  it  so  many 
words  of  such  character  that  I  am  inclined  to  take  it 
as  the  modern  representative  of  the  Lule  of  Machoni, 
though  corrupted  by  much  borrowing.  When  we 
have  a  grammar  of  it,  the  obscurity  will  be  cleared  up. 


VILEI.A. 

Tongue,  lequy,  lequip. 

Tooth,  llu,  '     lupe. 

Hand,  ys,  ysip. 

House,  enii,  quanL 

A  comparison  of  the  Vilela  with  the  Chunipi, 
(Chumipy,  Sinipi  or  Ciulipi,)  proves  that  they  are 
rather  closely  related,  and  that  the  Chunipi  is  not  an 
independent  tongue  as  has  often  been  stated.  In  view 
of  this,  I  include  it  in  the  Lule  dialects. 

The  third  important  stock  is  that  of  the  Matacos. 
It  is  still  in  extensive  use  on  the  Rio  Vermejo,  and 
we  have  a  recent  and  genial  description  of  these  peo- 
ple and  their  language  from  the  pen  of  the  Italian 
traveler,  Giovanni  Pelleschi.*  They  are  somewhat 
small  in  size,  differing  from  the  Guaycurus  in  this 
respect,  who  are  tall.  Their  homes  are  low  huts 
made  of  bushes,  but  they  are  possessed  of  many  small 
arts,  are  industrious,  and  soon  become  conversant 
with  the  use  of  tools.  Their  hair  is  occasionally 
wavy,  and  in  children  under  twelve,  it  is  often 
reddish.  The  eyes  are  slightly  oblique,  the  nose 
large,  straight  and  low.  Like  all  the  Chaco  Indians, 
they  do  not  care  for  agriculture,  preferring  a  subsist- 

*  Otto  Mesi  net  Gran  Ciacco  (Firenze,  iSSi). 


314  THE  AMERICAN   RACE. 

ence  from  hunting  and  fishing,  and  from  the  product 
of  their  horses  and  cattle.  What  few  traditions  they 
have  indicate  a  migration  from  the  east. 

The  term  Mataguayos  was  applied  to  some  of  this 
stock  as  well  as  to  some  of  the  Guaycurus.  The 
former  included  the  Agoyas,  the  Inimacas  or  Imacos, 
and  the  Palomos,  to  whom  the  Jesuit  Joseph  Araoz 
went  as  missionary,  and  composed  a  grammar  and 
dictionary  of  their  dialect.  He  describes  them  as  ex- 
ceedingly barbarous  and  intractable.*  The  Tayunis 
had  at  one  time  188  towns,  and  the  Teutas  46  towns. 
This  was  in  the  palmy  days  of  the  Jesuit  reductions.! 
Both  these  extensive  tribes  are  classed  by  D'Orbigny 
with  the  Matacos. 

According  to  the  older  writers  the  Payaguas  lived 
on  the  river  Paraguay,  and  spoke  their  tongue  in  two 
dialects,  the  Payagua  and  the  Sarigue.  Von  Martius, 
however,  denies  there  ever  was  such  a  distinct  people. 
The  word  payagua,  he  remarks,  was  a  generic  term 
for  "  enemies,"  and  was  applied  indiscriminately  to 
roving  hordes  of  Guaycurus,  Mbayas,  etc4 

The  Payaguas,  however,  are  mentioned  distinctly 
by  the  early  missionaries  as  a  nation  with  peculiar 
language  and  habits.  They  differed  from  their  neigh- 
bors as  being  aquatic,  not  equestrian.  They  were 
singularly  skilful  boatmen  and  had  a  mythology 
apart  from  the  other  tribes,  "  worshipping  the  devil 
under  the  figure  of  a  great  bird."§  There  is  also  a 

*  "  Nacion  la  mas  vil  del  Chaco."     Hervas,  Catalogo  de  las  Len- 
guas  Conocidas,  Tom.  I.,  p.  164. 

f  Lozano,  Description  del  Gran  Chaco,  pp.  75,  76. 
\  Ethnographic  und  Sprachenkunde,  Bd.  I.,  s.  225-6. 
g  Lettres  Edifiantes  et  Curieuses,  Tome  II.,  pp.  96,  97. 


CHACO   STOCKS.  315 

manuscript  in  the  Library  of  the  American  Philo- 
sophical Society,  written  in  the  middle  of  the  last 
century,  describing  the  visit  of  a  missionary  to  the 
Payaguas,  at  that  time  resident  near  Santa  ¥6  in 
Paraguay.  He  accuses  them  as  given  to  revolting 
vices  and  utterly  barbarous.* 

The  statement  of  Von  Martius  that  the  nation  has 
entirely  disappeared  is  incorrect,  as  quite  recently  a 
vocabulary  of  it  has  been  obtained  by  Don  Luis  de 
Fontana,  which  shows  it  to  be  distinct  both  from  the 
Guaycuru  and  any  other  known  stock.f 

LINGUISTIC  STOCKS  OF    THE  GRAN  CHACO, 
Guaycuru  Stock  : 
Abipones,  in  the  central  Chaco. 
Aguilotes,  sub-tribe  of  the  Mbocobis. 
Bocobis,  see  Mbocobis. 

Cadioeos,  near  Fort  Olimpo  on  the  Paraguay. 
Chichas  Orejones. 
Churumatas. 

Guachis,  on  Rio  Mondego. 
Guaycurus,  on  the  middle  Paraguay. 
Malbalais,  on  the  Rio  Vermejo. 
Matagayos-Churumatas. 
Mbayas,  on  Rio  Xerui. 
Mbocobis,  on  the  Rio  Vermejo, 
Pitilagas,  see  Yapitilaguas. 
Quiniquinaux,  northeast  of  Albuquerque. 
Tobas,  north  of  the  Mbocobis. 
Terenos,  on  the  Rio  de  Miranda. 
Yapitalaguas,  on  the  Rio  Vermejo. 

*  Wage  del  P.  F.  Pedro  Parras  desde  Aragon  &  Indias  en  1748, 

MS. 

f  Printed  in  the  Revista  de  la  Sociedad  Geografica  Argentina, 
1887,  p.  352.  I  have  compared  this  with  the  Payaguatext  given  in 
the  Mithridates,  Bd.  III.,  490,  but  the  latter  is  so  obscure  that  I 
derived  no  data  for  a  decision  as  to  the  identity  of  the  dialects. 


316  THE  AMERICAN   RACE. 

Lule  Stock  : 

Chunipis,  on  Rio  Vermejo. 

Juris,  on  Rio  Salado. 

Lules,  near  Rio  Vermejo. 

Mataras,  on  Rio  Pilcomayo. 

Oris tines,  on  Rio  Pilcomayo. 

Sinipis,  see  Chunipis. 

Tonocotes,  on  Rio  Pilcomayo. 

Toquistines,  on  Rio  Pilcomayo. 

Vilelas,  north  of  the  Rio  Vermejo. 

Ysistines,  on  the  Pilcomayo. 
Mataco  Stock  : 

Agoyas,  on  Rio  Vermejo. 

Atalalas,  on  Rio  Vermejo. 

Enimagas  or  Imacos,  on  east  bank  of  Pilcomayo. 

Matacos,  on  Rio  Verde. 

Mataguayos,  north  of  Rio  Vermejo. 

Ocoles,  south  of  Rio  Vermejo. 

Palomos,  on  Rio  Vermejo. 

Taunies,  on  Rio  Vermejo. 

Teutas,  on  Rio  Vermejo. 

Vejosos,  on  Rio  Vermejo.   ' 

Xolotes,  on  Rio  Vermejo. 

Yoes,  on  Rio  Vermejo. 
Payagua  Stock  : 

Agaces,  on  Rio  Paraguay. 

Payaguas,  near  Santa  Fe". 

Sarigues,  on  middle  Paraguay. 


Among  the  independent  Chaco  stocks,  D'Orbigny 
classes  the  Lenguas,  who  in  1828  lived,  about  300  in 
number,  near  Corrientes.*  Von  Martius  believed 
they  were  a  branch  of  the  Guaycurus.f  There  is 
ample  evidence,  however,  that  they  were  a  wander- 
ing branch  of  the  Chiquitos  of  Bolivia.  The  mis- 

*  L* Homme  Americain,  Tom.  II.,  p.  116. 

t  Ethnographic  und  Sprachenkunde,  Bd.  I.,  226. 


CHACO   STOCKS.  317 

sionary,  J.  P.  Fernandez,  who  visited  them  about  a 
century  before  D'Orbigny,  says  expressly  that  they 
spoke  the  same  tongue  as  the  Chiquitos  ;  *  and  the 
statement  of  Hervas  that  the  similarities  of  their 
words  to  the  Chiquito  arose  from  borrowed  expres- 
sions is  not  well  founded. f 

The  Charruas  were  a  barbarous  nation  living  in  the 
extensive  plains  which  stretch  from  the  banks  of  the 
Parana  to  the  sea  coast.  They  were  savage  and  coura- 
geous, without  fixed  homes,  and  skilled  in  the  use  of  the 
bola.  One  of  their  customs  was  to  cut  off  a  joint  of  a 
finger  on  the  death  of  a  relative,  and  there  were  few 
of  the  adults  that  were  not  thus  maimed.  +  In  appear- 
ance they  were  usually  large  in  size,  heavily  built,  with 
big  heads  and  broad  faces,  narrow  noses,  small  eyes 
and  large  mouths.  Their  color  was  dark.  § 

The  members  of  this  family  as  recorded  by  the  early 
writers,  especially  Hervas,  are  as  follows: 

CHARRUA  LINGUISTIC  STOCK. 

Bohanes,  on  the  Paraguay  near  the  Rio  Negro  (extinct). 

Chanes,  adjacent  to  the  Bohanes. 

Charruas,  on  the  coast  east  of  the  Rio  Uruguay. 

Guenoas,  east  of  the  Uruguay. 

Martidanes,  east  of  the  Uruguay. 

Minuanes,  between  the  Uruguay  and  Parana. 

Yaros,  on  east  bank  of  Uruguay  (extinct). 

Dr.  Paul  Ehrenreich  describes  them  as  they  are  to- 

*  Lettres  Edifiantes  et  Curieuses,  Tome  II.,  p.  165. 
t  Catalogo  de  las  Lenguas,  Tom.  I.,  p.  185. 
J  Pedro  Lozano,  Historia  de  la  Conquista  de  Paraguay,  Tom.  I., 
p.  407  (Ed.  Buenos  Aires,  1873). 

\  D'Orbigny,  L'Homme  Americain,  Tom.  II.,  p.  83. 


318  THE  AMERICAN   RACE. 

day,  splendid  riders  and  daring  soldiers,  but  faithless 
and  tricky  ;  *  so  they  have  not  much  improved  since 
Father  Chome  in  1730  stigmatized  them  as  francs 
volcurs  de  grand  chcmin.\ 

The  Gnatos  or  Vuatos  were  accolents  of  the  upper 
Paraguay  and  Araguay,  and  had  fixed  settlements  near 
Albuquerque.  Travelers  report  them  as  an  unusually 
handsome  people.  They  are  well-built,  light  in  hue, 
with  Roman  noses  and  regular  features,  and  the  men 
with  a  well-developed  beard  on  lip  and  chin.  This 
appearance  does  not  belie  their  intelligence,  which  is 
above  the  average.  Polygamy  prevails  to  an  uncom- 
mon extent.  Von  Martius  thought  that  they  were  of 
a  northeastern  origin,  connected  perhaps  with  the 
Malalis  of  Bahia,  who  are  a  Tapuya  people.  \  There 
may  have  been  some  admixture,  as  from  a  small  vo- 
cabulary I  quote  the  following  resemblances  : 

GUATO.  TAPUYA. 

Water,  maguen,  tnagnan. 

Head,  doken,  dicran. 

Hand,  ida,  danicra. 

Foot,  apoo,  po,  ipaa. 

Tooth,  magua,  aiqua. 

Tongue,  chagit  dageuto. 

A  recent  writer  does  not  give  so  favorable  an  opin- 
ion of  this  people.  He  found  them  living  about  the 
junction  of  the  Rio  San  Lorenzo  with  the  Rio  Para- 

*  Zeitschrift  fur  Ethnologic,  1889,  s.  658. 

f  Lettres  Edifiantes  et  Curieuses,  Tome  II.,  p.  107. 

J  Ethnographie  ^lnd  Sprachenkunde,  Bd.  I.,  s.  245,  246.  A  good 
vocabulary  is  supplied  by  Castelnau,  Expedition,  Tome  V.,  Ap- 
pendix. 


CHACO    STOCKS.  319 

guay,  and  in  a  depraved  condition.  Girls  who  were 
not  more  than  five  or  six  years  old  were  used  by  the 
men  as  wives.  Sterility  and  premature  decrepitude 
were  the  natural  consequences.* 

On  the  western  border  of  the  Chaco,  in  the  provinces 
of  Tucuman  and  Catamarca,  resided  the  Calchaquis,  a 
tribe  interesting  as  the  only  one  in  the  South  Atlantic 
Group  who  constructed  walls  of  cut  stone.  At  least, 
such  are  found  in  their  country,  as  for  instance,  one 
about  thirty  miles  from  Andalgala,  where  there  is  a 
well-constructed  dry  wall  about  ten  feet  high,  enclos- 
ing a  space  nearly  a  mile  in  diameter,  evidently  once  a 
walled  city.  Stone  built  tombs  are  also  frequent,  from 
which  the  rifler  is  rewarded  with  mummies,  ornaments 
of  impure  gold,  and  small  idols  of  copper.  But  I 
doubt  if  the  Calchaquis  developed  any  such  ripe  arts 
as  these.  History  tells  us  that  they  voluntarily  ac- 
cepted the  rule  of  the  Incas  about  the  middle  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  and  that  their  land  became  part  of 
the  Collasuyu  or  southern  district  of  the  empire.  All 
these  remains  have  a  distinct  impress  of  Kechua  art, 
and  we  may  be  sure  that  their  inspiration  was  through- 
out Peruvian. f 

The  earliest  missionaries  depict  the  Calchaquis 
with  curious  usages  and  with  a  certain  barbaric 
splendor.  A  widow  became  the  wife  of  her  husband's 
brother,  as  of  old  in  Israel.  So  long  as  she  was  a 
virgin,  a  girl  could  dress  in  the  gaudiest  colors,  but 

*  Richard  Rohde,  in  the  Orig.  Mittheil.  der  Ethnol.  Abtheil  d. 
Mus.  zu  Berlin,  1885,  s.  15. 

t  On  the  ruins  of  their  fortresses  and  tombs,  see  Vincente  G. 
Quesada,  Estndios  Historicos,  pp.  45-48  (Buenos  Aires,  1864). 


320  THE   AMERICAN    RACE. 

once  prostrato  pudore,  as  the  monk  delicately  puts  it, 
she  must  change  to  sober  weeds.  Their  ornaments 
were  of  silver  and  copper,  and  the  nobles  wore  a  cir- 
clet of  gold  and  brilliant  feathers.  Their  seasons  of 
mourning  were  accompanied  with  the  most  violent 
orgies.  Over  the  dead  they  raised  heaps  of  stones, 
and  held  that  the  souls  became  stars.* 

We  have  no  specimen  of  the  language  of  the  Cal- 
chaquis,  although  a  grammar  of  it  was  written  by  the 
Jesuit,  Alonso  de  Barcena,  and  perhaps  published.  It 
is  called  the  Katamarefio  or  Cacana  tongue,  terms  de- 
rived from  the  Kechua.  The  proper  names,  however, 
which  have  been  preserved  in  it  indicate  that  it  was 
different  from  the  Kechua. f  I  have  already  referred 
(page  227)  to  Von  Tschudi's  suggestion  that  it  survives 
in  the  modern  Atacamefto. 

From  the  few  specimens  of  skulls  which  have  been 
examined,  the  Calchaquis  appear  allied  to  the  Auca- 
nian  stock,:}:  and  it  may  be  that  further  research  will 
prove  them  a  branch  of  the  Araucanians. 

The  following  tribes  are  mentioned  by  old  writers  as 
members  of  the 

CATAMARENA   LINGUISTIC  STOCK. 

Acalianes.  Catamarcas.  Tamanos. 

Cacas  or  Cacanas.          Diagitas  or  Drachitas. 
Calchaquis.  Quilmes. 

*  Nicolas  del  Techo,  Hist.  Prov.  Par  aquaria,  Lib.  V.,  cap.  23. 

fSee  Von  Tschudi,  in  Verhand.  der  Berlin.  Anthrop.  Gesell., 
1885,  s.  184,  sqq.  This  traveler  could  find  no  relics  of  the  tongue 
in  the  ancient  Calchaqui  district,  which  he  visited  in  1858.  The 
only  languages  then  were  Spanish  and  Kechua  {Rcisen,  Bd.  V., 
s.  84). 

J  Virchow,  in  Verhand.  der  Berlin.  Anthrop.  Gesell.,  1884,  s.  375. 


PAMPEAN    STOCKS.  3211 

The  learned  Barcena  also  prepared  a  grammar  of 
the  Natixana  or  Mogana  language,  spoken  by  the 
Naticas,  whom  we  find  mentioned  by  later  authori- 
ties as  neighbors  of  the  Calchaquis  in  the  government 
of  Santa  Fe.*  They  apparently  belonged  among  the 
Chaco  tribes.  Barcena  adds  that  nine  different 
tongues  were  spoken  in  the  district  of  Cordova, 
among  which  were  the  Sanavirona  and  Indama, 
which  had  not  been  learned  by  the  missionaries.! 

2.    The  Pampeans  and  Araucanians. 

South  of  the  Gran  Chaco,  say  from  south  latitude 
35°,  begins  the  true  Pampas  formation.  This,  ac- 
cording to  the  geologist  Burmeister,  is  not  a  marine 
deposit,  but  the  result  of  fluvial  overflows  and  dust 
storms.  It  is  diluvial  and  quaternary,  and  overlies 
the  Patagonian  formation,  which  is  marine  and  early 
Pleistocene.  The  pampas  are  in  parts  wide  grassy 
plains,  like  the  prairies  of  the  upper  Mississippi  valley  ; 
in  parts  they  are  salt  deserts,  in  parts  more  or  less 
wooded.  With  little  variety,  this  scenery  reaches  from 
the  Chaco  to  the  Rio  Negro,  S.  lat.  40°.  Nearly  the 
whole  of  this  territory  was  occupied  by  one  linguistic 
stock.  It  is  the  same  which  is  found  in  Chili,  where 
its  most  prominent  members  are  the  Araucanians. 

Which  was  the  course  of  migration,  whether  from 
the  Pacific  coast  to  the  Pampean  plains  or  the  reverse, 
is  not  positively  decided,  but  I  am  inclined  to  believe 
it  was  the  latter.  The  ancestors  of  the  Araucanians 

*  D'Orbigny,  L'Homme  Am&ricain,  Vol.  II.,  p.  n. 
f  Barcena's  report  is  published  in  the  Relaciones  Geograficas  de 
Indias,  Peru,  Tom.  II. 
21 


322  THE  AMERICAN   RACE.  i 

would  not  willingly  have  crossed  the  barren  wastes 
of  the  desert  of  Atacama ;  there  are  evidences  of  a 
different  people  inhabiting  Chili  before  they  possessed 
it,  and  we  have  traces  that  they  had  not  obtained  full 
possession  of  that  country  at  its  discovery.  This 
view  does  not  deny  subsequent  migrations  of  the 
Araucanians  into  the  Pampas  under  the  pressure  of 
the  Spanish  invasion.*  In  such  moving  they  were 
simply  returning  to  the  traditional  homes  of  their 
ancestors.  As  the  name  of  the  whole  stock,  I  adopt 
the  word  Aucanian,  from  the  Araucanian  verb  aucani, 
to  be  wild,  indomitable,  from  which  are  derived  the 
tribal  names  Aucanos  and  Aucas,  occurring  on  both 
sides  of  the  Andes.f 

The  Pampeans  are  principally  nomadic  hordes  wan- 
dering from  pasture  to  pasture  with  their  horses, 
cattle  and  sheep.  Their  transitory  encampments, 
called  tolderias,  are  pitched  by  the  side  of  some  pond 
or  stream.  There  their  low  tents  made  of  dried  horse 
skins  are  grouped  confusedly,  one  to  each  family. 
Their  food  is  chiefly  horse  flesh  and  mutton,  often 
eaten  raw.  They  raise  no  vegetables,  and  dislike 
agriculture.  They  carry  on,  however,  many  small 
industries,  tan  and  dye  leather,  which  they  work  up 
into  boots  and  horse  furniture,  and  forge  with  skill 

*  Dr.  Darapsky  remarks  that  the  Araucanians  first  crossed  the 
Andes  into  the  Pampas  about  300  years  ago  (La  Lengua  Araucana, 
p.  4,  Santiago  de  Chile,  1888).  This  is  true,  but  the  tribes  they 
found  there  were  members  of  their  own  stock. 

f  Some  have  derived  these  names  from  the  Kechua,  aucca,  en- 
emy ;  but  I  am  convinced  by  the  examples  of  Federico  Barbara, 
Manuel  de  la  Lengua  Pampa,  p.  6  (Buenos  Aires,  1879),  that  at 
any  rate  the  same  root  belongs  to  the  Araucanian. 


PAMPEAN    STOCKS.  323 

iron  heads  for  their  long  lances,  and  knives  for  the 
chase,  while  the  women  trim  the  ostrich  skins  into 
rugs,  and  weave  wool  into  blankets  and  ponchos, 
highly  prized  for  their  serviceable  qualities.*  These 
products  are  bought  up  by  the  merchants  in  the  cities, 
and  thus  the  tribe  is  supplied  with  what  it  most 
prizes  from  European  markets. 

These  roving  hordes  have  no  particular  names. 
They  are  referred  to  as  the  northern,  eastern  or  west- 
ern peoples  by  the  Aucanian  terms  having  these  sig- 
nifications, Puelches,  Moluches,  Huilliches.  Besides 
these,  there  are  the  Ranqueles  on  the  Rio  Quinto, 
directly  west  of  Buenos  Ayres,  who  are  said  to  have 
immigrated  from  Chili,f  and  the  Querandies,  now 
probably  extinct,  who  once  dwelt  near  that  city. 

Those  living  on  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Andes, 
about  the  city  of  Mendoza,  and  in  the  ancient  prov- 
ince of  Cuyo,  are  described  as  taller  and  stronger  than 
the  Araucanians  of  Chili,  and  as  claiming  descent 
from  the  Pampean  tribes.:}:  They  were  locally 
known  as  Guarpes,  and  spoke  dialects  called  the 
Allentiac  and  the  Milcocayac,  not  distant  from  the 
Pampean  proper,  concerning  which  some  grammati- 
cal description  has  been  preserved. § 

*  Dr.  Martin  de  Moussy  gives  an  interesting  sketch  of  these 
people  in  the  Annuaire  du  Comite  d*  Archceologie  Americaine, 
1865,  p.  218,  sq. 

t  The  chief  source  of  information  on  this  tribe  is  Col.  Lucio  de 
Mansilla,  Una  Escursion  &  los  Indios  Ranqueles,  Vol.  II.  (Buenos 
Aires,  1870).  The  name  Ranqueles  means  "  thistle  people,"  from 
the  abundance  of  that  plant  in  their  country. 

\  G.  Coleti,  Dizionario  deW  America  Meridionale,  s.  v.,  Cuyo. 

\  Valdivia,  Arte  de  la  Lengua  Chilena.     Ed.  L,ima,  1607. 


324  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

Few  of  the  Pampean  tribes  have  been  induced  to 
accept  civilization  or  Christianity.  They  still  believe 
in  their  good  spirit,  Chachoa,  and  in  one  of  evil  or 
misfortune,  GualicJio ;  they  continue  to  obey  their 
priests  or  medicine  men  ;  and  the  resting  places  of  the 
dead  are  regarded  with  superstitious  awe.  Marriage 
among  them,  while  it  has  the  appearance  of  violence, 
is  really  carried  out  with  the  consent  of  the  girl  and 
her  parents,  for  a  sum  agreed  upon. 

The  Molu-Che  or  Manzaneros  are  said  to  be  the  best 
of  the  Pampeans.  They  are  sedentary  and  have  ex- 
tensive orchards  of  apples  and  flocks  of  sheep  to  the 
north  of  the  Rio  Limay.  They  have  well-cut  feat- 
ures, fresh  light  complexion,  black  fine  hair,  and 
their  women  are  considered  really  handsome.* 

The  Araucanians  of  Chili,  known  as  singularly  bold 
warriors  who  defied  successfully  the  Incas,  and  gave 
the  Spaniards  the  greatest  trouble,  occupy  the  Pacific 
coast  from  south  latitude  25°  to  about  43°,  and  num- 
ber about  20,000.  In  physical  appearance  they  re- 
semble the  Pampeans,  and  present  marked  differences 
from  both  the  Kechuas  of  Peru  and  the  Tapuyas  of 
Brazil,  having  high,  brachycephalic  skulls,f  and  a 
clear  copper  color  of  skin.  They  are  of  moderate 
stature,  but  muscular,  with  black  hair,  round  faces, 
small  eyes,  and  small  feet  and  hands.  They  are  di- 
vided locally  into  northern  and  southern  tribes,  but 

*  Lt.  Musters,  "  On  the  Races  of  Patagonia,"  in  Journal  of  the 
Anthropological  Institute,  Vol.  I.,  p.  205. 

f  Paolo  Riccardi,  in  Memorie  delta  Soc.  Ethnograf.  di  Firenze, 
1879,  p.  139  ;  also  the  estimable  work  of  Jose  T.  Medina,  Los 
Aborijenesde  Chile  (Santiago,  1882). 


PAMPEAN   STOCKS.  325 

there  is  little  difference  in  dialects.  Their  tongue, 
the  Chilidungu,  has  been  extravagantly  lauded  by 
some  who  have  studied  it,  and  one  worthy  missionary 
was  so  enamored  with  it  that  he  published  a  grammar 
and  dictionary  of  it  in  Europe,  that  it  might  be  in- 
troduced as  the  learned  language  there,  to  supersede 
the  Latin  :  *  it  certainly  is  harmonious  and  flexible. 

The  Araucanians  did  not  at  any  time  rise  in  cul- 
ture above  the  level  of  the  Iroquois  and  Algonquins 
in  the  northern  continent.  ,  It  is  true  that  in  the 
tombs  in  their  country  we  discover  fine  specimens  of 
pottery,  some  good  work  in  bronze,  gold,  copper  and 
silver,  and  beautiful  specimens  of  polished  stone  im- 
plements.f  But  if  one  examines  closely  the  art-forms 
of  these  relics,  he  can  not  fail  to  recognize  in 
them  the  potent  inspiration  of  the  Inca  civilization  ; 
and  we  may  be  sure  that  if  they  were  not  directly 
booty  from  that  nation,  they  were  the  products  of  its 
trained  workmen,  and  are  not  to  be  put  to  the  credit 
of  Aucanian  industry. 

AUCANIAN   LINGUISTIC  STOCK. 

Araucanos,  in  northern  and  central  Chili. 
Aucanos  or  Aucas,  in  the  central  Pampas. 
Chauques,  in  the  Archipelago  of  Chiloe. 
Chonos,  (?)  on  Pacific,  south  of  Chiloe. 
Cuncos,  in  Chili,  south  of  Rio  Valdivia. 
Divie-ches,  on  Rio  Colorado. 
Guarpes,  near  Mendoza. 
Huiliches  (southern  people),  tribes  to  the  south. 

*  Bernard  Havestadt,  Chilidugu,  sive  Res  Chilenses  (Westphalia, 
1777.  Reprint  by  Julius  Platzmann,  Leipzig,  1883). 

t  Many  of  these  are  portrayed  in  the  work  of  Medina,  Los  Abo~ 
rijenes  de  Chile,  above  referred  to. 


326  THE  AMERICAN   RACE. 

Molu-ches  (western  people  or  warriors) ,  on  Pacific  coast. 
Pehuen-ches  (pine-forest  people),    east  of   Cordillera,  north  of 

Rio  Colorado. 

Picun-ches  (northern  people),  north  of  Pehuenches. 
Puel-ches  (eastern  people),  on  both  banks  of  Rio  Negro. 
Querandies,  near  site  of  Buenos  Ayres. 
Ranqueles,  between  Rio  Quarto  and  Rio  Quinto. 

The  Pacific  coast  of  Patagonia,  gashed  by  ancient 
glaciers  into  deep  fiords  and  rocky  islands,  harbors 
various  tribes  whose  affinities  are  uncertain.  The 
most  curious  of  them  would  seem  to  be  the  Chonos  or 
Chunos,  or  Cuncones.  They  lived  south  of  the  archi- 
pelago of  Chiloe,  and  are  described  as  having  red  hair, 
a  light  olive  complexion,  and  of  mild  and  friendly 
manners.  They  raised  a  breed  of  dogs  (perhaps  gua- 
nacos),  and  wove  their  clothing  from  its  coarse  long 
hair. 

This  account  comes  to  us  from  as  far  back  as 
1619,  when  the  first  missionaries  visited  them,*  and 
these  traits  cannot  therefore  be  attributed  to  inter- 
mixture with  Europeans.  They  are  not  peculiar  in 
these  respects.  Similar  traits  are  reported  of  the 
Boroas,  a  tribe  in  one  of  the  valleys  of  central  Chili ;  f 
and  I  have  already  referred  to  the  red  hair  of  the  boys 
among  the  Matacos  of  the  Gran  Chaco.  Perhaps  it 
was  not  unusual  among  these  nations,  as  I  can  in  no 
other  way  explain  the  strange  idea  of  the  poet  Ercilla 

*  Nicolas  del  Techo,  Historia  Provintice  Paraquarice,  Lib.  VI., 
Cap.  IX. 

f  The  Boroas  live  on  the  Tolten  river,  and  have  blue  eyes,  a  fair 
complexion,  and  aquiline  noses.  Pablo  Treutcr,  La  Provincia  de 
Valdivia  y  los  Araucanos,  p.  52,  note  (Santiago  de  Chile,  1861). 
E.  Poeppig,  Reise  in  Chili  und  Peru,  Bd.  I.,  s.  463  (Leipzig,  1836). 


THE   PATAGONIANS.  327 

the  Homer  of  the  Araucanian  Conquest,  that  these 
people  were  descendants  of  the  Frisians  of  North 
Holland !  * 

The  language  of  the  Chonos  is  said  to  be  quite  dif- 
ferent from  that  of  the  Araucanians.  Poeppig  be- 
lieved it  to  be  a  distant  dialect  of  the  same  stock. 
Some  recent  travelers  assert  that  they  are  now  ex- 
tinct, but  Dr.  C.  Martin  informs  us  that  the  original 
inhabitants  of  the  Chonos  Islands,  who  were  the 
"  Huaihuenes  "  Indians,  were  transported  in  1765  to 
the  island  of  Chaulaflec,  where  their  posterity  still 
survive.f 

j.   The  Patagonians  and  Fuegians. 

The  Patagonians  call  themselves  Chonek  or  Tzon- 
eca,  or  Inaken  (men,  people),  and  by  their  Pampean 
neighbors  are  referred  to  as  Tehuel-Che,  southerners. 
They  do  not,  however,  belong  to  the  Aucanian  stock, 
nor  do  they  resemble  the  Pampeans  physically.  They 
are  celebrated  for  their  stature,  many  of  them  reach- 
ing from  six  to  six  feet  four  inches  in  height,  and 

*  "  Mi  nombre  es  Glaura,  en  fuerte  hora  nacida, 
Hija  de*       en  cacique  Quilacura, 
De  la  s         e  de  Frisio  esclarecida. " 

Alonso  de  Ercilla,  La  Araucana,  Canto  XXVIII. 
Faulkner  and  others  refer  to  these  as  the  Cessares   (Description 
of  Patagonia,  p.  113,  Hereford,  1774).     There  was  such  a  tribe, 
and  it  was  made  the  subject  of  a  Utopian  sketch,  An  Account  of  • 
the  Cessares,  London,  1764. 

t  See  Petermann's  Mittheilungen,  1883,  s.  404,  and  compare  the 
same,  1878,  s.  465.  Dr.  Martin  elsewhere  gives  a  vocabulary  of 
the  Chauques  of  Chiloe.  It  is  pure  Araucanian  (Zeitschrift  fur 
Ethnologic,  1877,  s.  168^. 


328  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

built  in  proportion.*  In  color  they  are  a  reddish 
brown,  and  have  aquiline  noses  and  good  foreheads. 
They  care  little  for  a  sedentary  life,  and  roam  the 
coast  as  far  north  as  the  Rio  Negro.  They  are  not 
without  some  religious  rites,  and  are  accustomed  to 
salute  the  new  moon,  and  at  the  beginning  of  any 
solemn  undertaking  to  puff  the  smoke  of  their  pipes 
to  the  four  cardinal  points,  just  as  did  the  Algonquins 
and  Iroquois.f 

Their  language  differs  wholly  from  the  Araucanian, 
though  it  has  borrowed  many  words  from  it.  An  in- 
teresting fact  illustrating  its  stability  in  spite  of  their 
roving  life  has  been  brought  out  by  Ramon  Lista. 
He  has  compared  its  present  form  with  the  vocabu- 
lary of  it  given  by  Pigafetta  in  his  voyage  in  1520,  and 
shows  that  in  the  intervening  generations  it  has  un- 
dergone scarcely  any  change.:}: 

Von  Martius  believed  that  a  connection  between 
the  Patagonian  and  the  Tapuya  stocks  could  be 
shown,  and  gives  a  tabular  comparison  of  the  two.§ 
I  have  extended  this  by  means  of  Ramon  Lista's 
vocabulary  of  the  former  and  Dr.  Ehrenreich's  cor- 
rected forms  of  the  Tapuya,  and  conclude  that  the 
resemblances  are  illusory,  depending  on  incorrect 
orthography  of  the  sounds. 

*  On  the  stature  of  the  Patagonians,  see  the  very  complete  study 
of  D'Orbigny,  L1  Homme  Americain,  Vol.  II.,  pp.  26-70. 

t  Lt.  Musters,  "  On  the  Races  of  Patagonia,"  u.  s.,  p.  194,  sq. 

\  Ramon  Lista,  Mis  Esploradones  y  Descubrimientos  en  Pata- 
gonia, p.  116  (Buenos  Aires,  1880).  This  author  gives,  pp.  125- 
130,  a  full  vocabulary  of  the  "  Choonke  "  as  it  is  in  use  to-day. 

\  Ethnographic  und  Sprachenkunde,  Bd.  I.,  s.  313. 


THE   FUEGIANS.  329 

About  the  beginning  of  the  last  century  the  tribes 
known  as  Poyas  (Pey-yuy)  and  Reyes  (Rey-yuy)  were 
collected  at  a  Mission  established  on  Lake  Nahuel- 
huapi,  about  south  latitude  42°.  Hervas  reports  them 
as  speaking  a  language  radically  different  from  the 
Araucanian,  and  probably  they  should  be  classed  with 
the  Tzonecas.* 

On  the  inhospitable  shores  of  Tierra  del  Fuego 
there  dwell  three  nations  of  diverse  stock,  but  on 
about  the  same  plane  of  culture.  One  of  these  is  the 
Yahgans  or  Yapoos,  on  the  Beagle  canal ;  the  second 
is  the  Onas  or  Aonik,  to  the  north  and  east  of  these ; 
and  the  third  the  Aliciilufs,  to  the  north  and  west. 

Of  these  the  Yahgans  are  the  best  known,  through 
the  efforts  of  the  English  missionaries  who  have  re- 
duced their  language  to  writing.  It  is  a  polysyllabic, 
agglutinative  tongue,  with  both  pre-  and  suffixes,  and 
is  extremely  rich  in  expressions  for  the  ordinary 
needs  of  their  life.  The  verb  has  four  numbers,  a 
singular,  dual,  trial  and  plural.  It  does  not  seem  in 
any  way  related  to  the  Aucanian  stock,  f 

The  tongue  of  the  Onas,  who  are  known  as  the 
Yakanna-Cunni,  is  apparently  connected  with  the 
Tsoneca  or  Patagonian,  which  people  they  also  re- 
semble  in  stature  and  physical  traits.  \ 

*  Lettres  Ed.  et  Curieuses,  Tome  II.,  p.  88  ;  Hervas,  Catalogo  de 
las  Lenguas,  Tom.  I.,  p.  136. 

f  See  Lucien  Adam,  Grammaire  de  la  Langue  Jagane  (Paris, 
1885).  Dr.  Darapsky  thinks  this  tongue  reveals  a  common  point 
of  divergence  with  "  los  idiomas  meso-Andinos. "  Boletin  del 
Institute  Geog.  Argentina,  1889,  p.  287. 

|  See  Dr.  Hyades,  in  Revue  d*  Ethnographic,  Tome  IV.,  No.  VI., 
and  the  chapter  "  I/  Ethnographic  des  Fuegiens,"  in  I/.  F.  Martial, 


33O  THE   AMERICAN    RACE. 

The  Fuegians  are  generally  quoted  as  a  people  on 
the  lowest  round  of  the  ladder  of  culture  ;  and  so  they 
are  painted  by  many  observers.  They  have  no  gov- 
ernment, they  can  count  only  to  three,  ordinary  family 
affection  is  not  observable,  and  even  mothers  manifest 
a  lack  of  love  for  their  offspring.  Their  shelters  are 
wretched,  and  they  go  almost  naked  in  a  climate 
which  is  both  cold  and  damp. 

On  the  other  hand,  they  display  singular  ingenuity 
in  their  utensils  for  hunting  and  fishing  ;  they  use  the 
sling,  the  club,  the  bow,  the  bola  and  the  lance ;  the 
women  weave  reed  baskets  so  firmly  that  they  will  hold 
water,  and  their  bark  canoes  are  light  and  seaworthy. 

In  hunting  they  have  the  service  of  a  native  dog 
which  they  have  trained,  and  whose  welfare  they 
look  after  with  sedulous  attention.  Though  devoid 
of  idols  and  external  rites  of  worship,  they  manifest 
in  many  ways  a  sense  of  religion.  Thus  the  relations 
of  the  sexes  are  surrounded  with  ceremonies  of  fast- 
ing and  bathing,  to  neglect  which  would  entail  mis- 
fortunes, and  the  name  of  the  dead  is  not  pronounced 
out  of  superstitious  awe.  The  songs  and  legends  of 
the  Yahgans  show  some  imaginative  power.  Many 
of  them  relate  to  the  marvelous  achievements  of  the 
national  hero,  Umoara,  who  appears  to  be  a  wholly 
mythical  individual.  Their  strongest  passion  would 
seem  to  be  for  personal  adornment,  and  for  this  pur- 
pose shells,  vegetable  beads,  bright  pebbles  and  varie- 
gated feathers,  are  called  into  requisition.* 

Mission  Scientifique  du  Cap-Horn,  Tome  L,  Chap.  VI.  (Paris,  1888). 
Yakana-cunni  means  "  foot  people,"  as  they  did  not  use  horses. 
*  Dr.  Domenico  Lovisato,  in  Cosmos,  1884,  fas.  IV. 


THE   FUEGIANS.  331 

These  traits  are  not  those  of  an  enfeebled  intellect, 
and  an  examination  of  their  physical  powers  supports 
a  favorable  opinion  of  their  capacities.  Some  of  them 
are  unusually  tall  and  strong,  especially  those  on  the 
east  coast.  Their  skulls  are  mesocephalic  and  prog- 
nathic,  and  their  brains,  which  have  been  examined 
most  carefully  by  a  German  anatomist,  show  not  a 
single  point  of  inferiority  to  the  average  European 
brain.* 

From  examinations  which  have  been  carried  on  in 
the  numerous  shell-heaps  which  line  the  shores,  there 
is  no  evidence  that  any  other  people  ever  occupied 
the  islands.  Skulls  and  relics  are  such  as  those  of 
the  present  inhabitants,  f  The  total  number  of  these 
is  about  8000,  nearly  equally  divided  between  the 
tribes  named. 

The  classification  of  the  smaller  tribes  under  the 
above  stocks  is  not  yet  complete.  So  far  as  I  can 
make  it  out,  it  is  as  follows  : 


LINGUISTIC  STOCK. 

Alikulufs,  on  the  western  end  of  the  Beagle  Channel, 
Karaikas,  south  of  the  Alikulufs. 

ONA   LINGUISTIC    STOCK. 

Aoniks  or  Onas,  on  Magellan  Strait,  both  shores. 

Huemuls,  near  Skyring  and  Otway  Bays. 

frees,  see  Pescherees. 

Oensmen,  see  Aoniks. 

Pescherees,  on  central  portions  of  the  Strait. 

Yacanas,  see  Aoniks. 

*  Dr.  JohannSeitz,  in  Zeitschrift  fur  Ethnologic,  1886,  pp.  267, 
268. 
f  Domenico  Lovisato,  ubi  suprd. 


332  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

YAHGAN  LINGUISTIC    STOCK. 

Kennekas,  see  Takanikas. 

Takanikas,  on  both  shores  of  the  Beagle  Channel. 

Yahgans,  see  Yapoos. 

Yapoos,  on  the  central  Beagle  Channel. 

The  opinion  has  been  advanced  by  Dr.  Deniker  of 
Paris,*  that  the  Fuegians  represent  the  oldest  type  or 
variety  of  the  American  race.  He  believes  that  at 
one  time  this  type  occupied  the  whole  of  South 
America  south  of  the  Amazon,  and  that  the  Tapuyas 
of  Brazil  and  the  Fuegians  are  its  surviving  members. 
This  interesting  theory  demands  still  further  evidence 
before  it  can  be  accepted.  It  is  not  confirmed  by 
such  linguistic  comparisons  as  I  have  been  able  to 
institute. 

*  At  the  Congres  des  Americanistes,  Paris,  1890. 


LINGUISTIC  APPENDIX 


linguistic  classification  of  the  American  tribes 
is  at  present  imperfect  in  many  regions  on  ac- 
count of  the  incomplete  information  about  their 
tongues.  A  proper  comparison  of  languages  or  dia- 
lects includes  not  merely  the  vocabulary,  but  the 
grammatical  forms  and  the  phonetic  variations  which 
the  vocal  elements  undergo  in  passing  from  one  form 
of  speech  to  another.  In  some  respects,  the  morphol- 
ogy is  more  indicative  of  relationship  than  the  lex- 
icon of  tongues ;  and  it  is  in  these  grammatical 
aspects  that  we  are  peculiarly  poorly  off  when  we  ap- 
proach American  dialects.  Yet  it  is  also  likely  that 
the  tendency  of  late  years  has  been  to  underestimate 
the  significance  of  merely  lexical  analogies.  The 
vocabulary,  after  all,  must  be  our  main  stand-by  in 
such  an  undertaking. 

For  that  reason  I  have  thought  it  worth  while  to 
bring  together  a  short  list  of  common  words  and 
show  their  renderings  in  a  number  of  American 
tongues.  Inasmuch  as  the  languages  north  of  Mex- 
ico — those  in  the  United  States  and  Canada — have 
been  frequently  studied  and  are  readily  accessible  in 
published  books,  I  have  confined  my  specimens  to" 
the  tongues  of  the  central  and  southern  regions  of  the 
continent. 

(333) 


334  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

The  words  I  have  selected  for  the  vocabulary  are 
those  which  I  think  would  be  most  likely  to  indicate 
relationship,  when  such  existed.  But  as  every  com- 
parative linguist  is  aware,  neither  these  nor  any 
words  are  free  from  the  risk  of  ambiguity  and  equivo- 
cation. Thus,  in  many  languages  there  are  two  or 
three  different  terms  for  "  man,"  as  homo,  vir  or 
male;  "woman"  is  wife  or  female;  "sun"  and 
"  moon  "  are  often  merely  descriptive  terms  or  syn- 
onyms of  day,  light,  night  and  darkness  ;  the  parts 
of  the  body  have  in  American  tongues  the  personal 
possessive  noun  prefixed  or  suffixed  ;  what  is  worse, 
the  terms  for  such  may  differ  with  the  person,  as  in 
Kechua,  where  the  word  for  "  eye,"  "  arm,"  etc., 
differ  as  it  is  my  or  thy  eye,  etc.  "  Hand "  and 
"arm,"  "foot"  and  "leg,"  are  frequently  not  dis- 
criminated, the  corresponding  words  meaning  prop- 
erly "  upper  extremity,"  "  lower  extremity,"  etc. ; 
and  so  on  for  almost  every  word  that  could  be  chosen. 

The  proper  inference  to  draw  from  these  facts  is, 
not  that  a  comparison  of  vocabularies  is  worthless  or 
nearly  so,  but  just  the  contrary.  Where  we  find  that 
a  short  vocabulary,  imperfect  for  the  above  reasons, 
and  still  more  so  for  the  general  ignorance  of  lin- 
guistics on  the  part  of  collectors,  and  the  varying 
values  they  give  to  the  alphabets  employed,  yet  re- 
veals identities  with  others,  we  are  justly  authorized 
to  consider  such  analogies  as  highly  significant  and 
suggestive  of  profounder  comparisons. 


LINGUISTIC  APPENDIX. 


335 


YUMA  DIALECTS  NEAR  THE  GULF  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


Cochimi. 

Guaicuru. 

Seri. 

Yuma. 

Man, 

uami,  tama, 

e"tc,  //.  ti, 

eketam, 

hamuk. 

Woman, 

wakoe,  wuetu, 

anai, 

ekemam, 

hanya. 

Sun, 

ibo,  ibunga, 

uiitairi, 

shaa,  rahj, 

inyaa. 

Moon, 

gamma, 

isah, 

kilshia. 

Fire, 

usi, 

amak, 

aua. 

Water, 

kahal, 

ahj,  ax, 

aha. 

Head, 

agoppi, 

ihlit, 

ilta, 

Eye, 

ayibika, 

ito, 

ido. 

Ear, 

istla, 

ismahlka. 

Mouth, 

aha, 

iten, 

ya-a. 

Nose, 

nainu, 

ife, 

ihu. 

Tongue, 

ip*l, 

ehpelh. 

Teeth, 

itast, 

ehdoh. 

Hand, 

neganna, 

titshuketa, 

intlash, 

israhl. 

Foot,  . 

agannapa, 

itova, 

ime. 

House, 

ajihuenen, 

ambuja, 

aki, 

ava. 

i, 

teguep, 

tashjo, 

sitik. 

2, 

goguo,  kamoe, 

ko-ok*, 

o'ak. 

3, 

kombio, 

meakunju, 

ka-pka, 

hamok. 

4, 

magacubugua, 

kshu^kua, 

hoba. 

5, 

naganna  tegueo, 

ko-o^tom, 

harabk. 

The  above  vocabularies  illustrate  the  extension  of  the  Yuma 
stock  to  the  southward.  The  Cochimi  and  Guaircuru  are  remote 
dialects,  but  of  positive  affinities.  The  Yuma  words  which  I  have 
added  for  comparison  are  principally  from  the  Mohave  dialect,  and 
are  taken  from  the  vocabularies  published  by  the  "  U.  S.  Geograph- 
ical Surveys  west  of  the  rooth  Meridian." 

The  Seri  words  are  chiefly  from  the  satisfactory  vocabulary  ob- 
tained by  the  late  John  Russell  Bartlett.  The  relationship  of  the 
dialect  to  the  Yuma  stock  is  evident 


336 


THE  AMERICAN   RACE. 


DIALECTS  OF  THE  UTO-AZTECAN  STOCK. 


Tarahuntara.       Pima. 

Nahuatl. 

Ute. 

Man, 

tehoje, 

tinot, 

tlacatl, 

tawatz. 

Woman, 

muki,  upi, 

uba, 

cihuatl, 

oubea. 

Sun, 

taica, 

tash, 

tonatiuh, 

tabi. 

Moon, 

maitsaca, 

f  maskat,   •» 

metztli, 

mytoge\ 

«•  massar,    / 

Fire, 

naiki, 

tletl, 

te  vua,  M. 

Water, 

/shontik,  \ 

atl, 

pah. 

*•  sueti,        / 

Head, 

moola, 

nemoah, 

totzontecon, 

totsein. 

Eye, 

pusiki, 

ixtololotli, 

puevi. 

Ear, 

nechcala, 

naank, 

nacaztli, 

nangk. 

Mouth, 

camatl, 

temb. 

Nose, 

jachcala, 

yacatl. 

yaga,  M. 

Tongue, 

tenila, 

nenepilli, 

lengi,  M. 

Tooth, 

ptahan, 

tlantli, 

tahwan.  . 

Hand, 

noh, 

maitl, 

mou,  makhde. 

Foot, 

tala, 

icxitl, 

igug. 

House, 

f  nip-ki,     •» 
tki,            J 

calli, 

kahan. 

I, 

yumako, 

ce, 

shui. 

2, 

oca,  guoca, 

kuak, 

ome, 

wyune. 

3, 

vaik, 

yey, 

pay. 

4, 

ki-ak, 

nahui, 

vachue. 

5, 

huitas, 

macuilli, 

manuy. 

The  eight  dialects  which  I  give  from  the  extensive  Uto-Aztecan 
stock  will  illustrate  the  relationship  of  its  members.  The  words 
marked  M.  in  the  Ute  or  Shoshonian  vocabulary  belong  to  the 
Moqui  dialect,  which  appears  to  approach  nearer  the  Aztecan 
branch  than  the  speech  of  the  northern  tribes.  The  Tepehuana 
words  are  from  the  vocabulary  obtained  by  M.  Tarayre,  and  pub- 
lished in  his  Explorations  (see  ante,  p.  136).  I  have  placed  the 
geographical  extremes,  the  Nahuatl  and  the  Ute,  side  by  side,  to 
illustrate  the  really  striking  similarity  of  these  dialects,  the  one 


LINGUISTIC  APPENDIX. 


337 


DIALECTS  OF   THE 

UTO-AZTECAN  STOCK.—  (Continued.) 

Heve. 

Tepehuana. 

Opata. 

Cora. 

Man, 

dor, 

chiuaitcam, 

uri, 

teuit,  tedta. 

(  hub.        i 

Woman, 

J                  I 
Ihoquis,  / 

osi,  pi.  nau, 

uita. 

Sun, 

tuui, 

tanaol, 

tat, 

xeucat. 

Moon, 

metzat, 

maasol, 

metza, 

anahupi. 

Fire, 

te, 

tay, 

thai, 

teujcuarit. 

Water, 

bat, 

suudai, 

vat, 

ahti. 

Head, 

zonit, 

maao, 

muuti. 

Eye, 

vusit, 

bopoe, 

maua, 

hiuziti. 

Ear, 

nacat, 

naxaihti. 

Mouth, 

tenit, 

intrigni. 

Nose, 

dacat, 

yak. 

Tongue, 

nenet, 

nuin, 

nanuriti. 

Tooth, 

tanus, 

tatama. 

» 

Hand, 

mamat, 

ingnaono, 

Foot, 

tarat, 

incaiao, 

moamati. 

House, 

quit, 

vaak, 

kit 

chapoariti. 

I, 

sei, 

homad, 

se. 

2, 

goduni, 

gaok, 

hualpoa, 

3, 

veidum, 

baech, 

vaide. 

4, 

nausi, 

maukao, 

nago. 

5, 

marqui, 

chetam, 

marizi. 

current  on  the  Columbia  river,  the  other  extending  to  Chiriqui 
lagoon,  near  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  Buschmann,  in  his  works 
already  referred  to  (ante,  p.  119),  cities  numerous  other  examples. 
Still  more  substantial  proof  of  the  unity  of  this  stock  is  furnished 
by  the  comparative  grammar  of  its  different  members.  These 
present  various  phases  of  morphological  development,  but  always 
on  the  same  lines.  The  Nahuatl  is  much  the  higher  of  them  all, 
and  in  some  of  its  forms  attains  to  a  truly  inflectional  character, 
as  has  been  shown  by  Professor  Steinthal. 
12 


338 


THE  AMERICAN   RACE. 


CENTRA!,  STOCKS, 
Totonaco.  Tarasco.  Otomi. 


Upper. 

Lower. 

Man, 

tziuereti, 

n'yoh. 

Woman,  chajat, 

tac,  taco, 

cucha,  cuxareti, 

datsu,  sitzu, 

Sun,        co, 

chichini, 

huriata, 

'hiadi. 

Moon,      papa, 

malcoyo, 

cutzi, 

rzana. 

Fire, 

turiri, 

tzibi. 

Water,     chochot, 

xcan, 

itsi, 

dehe. 

Head,      ayxaca, 

ehpu, 

na. 

Eye,         lacaztaponitni,lacacholna, 

eskua, 

da. 

Ear,         tangan, 

cacaxcolna, 

kutsikua, 

gu- 

Meuth,    quilni, 

quelpaja, 

haramekua, 

ne. 

Nose,       quincan, 

quin, 

tz-ure, 

siu. 

Tongue, 

katamba, 

qhane. 

Tooth  ,    tatzanitni, 

taizalatna, 

sini, 

ttzi. 

Hand,      macanitni, 

macatatna, 

haqui, 

'ye. 

Foot,       tohuan, 

tojolat, 

gua. 

House, 

quahta, 

ngu. 

I,             torn, 

omollana, 

ma, 

'ne,  r'e. 

2,              toy, 

toy, 

tziman, 

yoho. 

3,             toto, 

toton, 

tanimo, 

hiu. 

4, 

tat, 

tamu, 

gooho. 

5, 

quitziz, 

yumu, 

cqtta. 

The  Totonaco  is  spoken  in  two  diverse  dialects  by  the  inhabitants 
of  the  plains  and  the  uplands.  The  difference  is  not  so  great  as 
appears  in  the  written  tongue,  as  they  are  mutually  intelligible. 

A  number  of  works  on  the  Tarascan  language  have  recently  been 
edited  or  written  by  Dr.  Nicolas  Leon,  of  Morelia,  Michoacan,  so 
that  there  is  abundant  material  for  the  study  of  the  tongue. 

The  Otomi  presents  so  many  sounds  unfamiliar  to  the  European 
ear  that  the  attempt  to  represent  it  by  our  alphabets  can  be  only 
remotely  accurate.  I  have  a  very  extensive  MS.  dictionary  of  the 
tongue,  based  on  the  Vocabulario  Mexicano  of  Molina. 


LINGUISTIC  APPENDIX. 
CENTRAL  STOCKS. 


339 


Zoque. 

Mixe. 

Zapotec.         Mixtec. 

Man, 

puen, 

yai-tohk, 

beni  niguio,  yee. 

Woman, 

yoma, 

toix, 

beni  gonaa,    nahadzehe. 

Sun, 

hama, 

xeuh, 

(  chii. 

(  gobiche. 

Moon, 

poya,  xapa, 

xona  xibeo. 

Fire, 

hucata, 

xoon, 

guii. 

Water, 

na, 

noo, 

niza. 

Head, 

copac, 

cobaac, 

icqui,              dzini. 

Eye, 

vitem, 

huin, 

bizaloo,           tenu. 

Ear, 

tatzec, 

tatzc, 

tiaga,              tutnu,  dzoho. 

Mouth, 

angnaca, 

au, 

rua,  rohua,    yuhu. 

Nose, 

quina, 

hop, 

xii,                  dzitui. 

Tongue, 

totz, 

yen, 

luuchi,            yaa. 

Tooth, 

tetz, 

totz, 

chitalaaga,     noho. 

Hand, 

tzamguica, 

coo, 

naa,                daha. 

Foot, 

manguica, 

teic, 

nii, 

House, 

toe,  tenk, 

yuu,  lichi,     huahi. 

It 

tuina, 

tuuc, 

tubi,                ek. 

2, 

metza, 

nietzc, 

tiopa,              uvui. 

3, 

tucay, 

tucoc, 

chona,            uni. 

4. 

macscuy, 

mactaxc, 

tapa,               kmi.     ' 

5, 

mosay, 

mocoxc, 

guayo,             hoho. 

In  the  above  vocabularies  the  relation  of  the  Zoque  to  the  Mixe 
is  more  clearly  shown  than  that  of  the  Zapotec  to  the  Mixtec.  A 
more  extended  comparison  of  the  two  latter  has  been  instituted  by 
Pimentel  in  his  work  on  the  languages  of  Mexico,  which  appears 
to  strengthen  the  belief  that  they  belong  to  the  same  stock.  Prof. 
Friedrich  Miiller,  however,  continues  to  regard  them  as  separate 
stocks  (Grundriss  der  Sprachwissenscha.fi,  Bd.  II.,  Ab.  I.,  s.  298, 
sq.).  The  question  is  discussed  with  fullness  in  the  introduction, 
by  Dr.  Nicholas  Leon,  to  the  Arte  del  Idioma  Zapoteco,  of  Juan  de 
Cordova  (ed.  Morelia,  1886),  to  which  the  student  is  referred.  I 
think  the  evidence  is  sufficient  to  regard  them  as  allied  idioms. 
The  Zapotec  of  the  mountains,  Zapoteco  serrano,  differs  consider- 
ably from  that  which  is  given  above. 


340 


THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 


CENTRAL  STOCKS. 


Chinantec. 

Huave. 

Maya. 

Chapanec. 

(  cha, 
\  nuh, 

>  nashui, 

uinic, 

dipaju,  naha. 

mui, 

(  naptah, 
(  nostah, 

j  ixal, 

nafui. 

manui, 

noet, 

kin, 

napiju,  nyumbu. 

zei, 

cabau, 

u, 

yuju. 

nigei, 

kaak, 

niiyu. 

mui, 

ha, 

nimbu. 

gui, 

pol,  hoi, 

tkima. 

nianihi, 

uich, 

nate. 

xicin, 

nyujmi. 

cuhaha, 

chi, 

duui,  nunsu. 

ni, 

nyungu. 

uak, 

baelu,  griji. 

CO, 

niji. 

nquaha, 

cab, 

dila,  diro. 

nni, 

uoc,  oc, 

laku,  gura. 

nu, 

piem, 

otoch, 

nangu. 

cna, 

anop, 

hun, 

tike,  ticao. 

tno, 

epoem, 

ca, 

jomi,  h&o. 

nne. 

erof-poef, 

ox, 

jami,  haui. 

quiu, 

apukif, 

can, 

haha. 

na, 

akukif, 

ho, 

haomo. 

The  Chinantec  is  included  in  the  Zapotec  stock  by  Pimentel,  who 
follows  the  dictum  of  Hervas,  confessedly  without  examination 
(Lenguas  Indigenas  de  Mexico,  Tom.  III.,  cap.  37).  This  was  not 
the  opinion  of  Dr.  Berendt,  who  has  compared  both  tongues,  and 
a  comparison  of  the  short  vocabularies  which  I  give  shows  only  one 
word,  that  for  "foot,"  which  is  identical  in  both. 

The  Huaves,  who  claim  a  migration  from  the  south,  do  not  re- 
veal a  connection  in  their  language  with  any  of  the  southern  stocks. 

The  Maya  of  the  Vocabulary  is  the  pure  tongue  as  spoken  in  Yu- 
catan. Its  various  dialects  have  been  carefully  studied  by  Berendt, 
Stoll  and  others.  The  most  corrupt  is  probably  the  Chaneabal  of 
Chiapas,  of  which  I  gave  a  short  analysis  in  the  American  Anthro~ 
pologist,  Jan.,  1888. 


LINGUISTIC  APPENDIX. 


341 


INTER-ISTHMIAN  STOCKS. 
Musquito.      Lenca.          Xicaque. 


Ulva. 


Man, 

waikna, 

amashe, 

jome, 

all. 

Woman, 

mairen, 

mapu, 

pitme", 

yall. 

Sun, 

lapta, 

gasi, 

behapoi, 

moa. 

Moon, 

kati, 

numui, 

uaigo. 

Fire, 

pauta, 

uga, 

inqueamoos, 

ku. 

Water, 

H, 

giias, 

sur, 

uas. 

Head, 

lei, 

toro, 

laipuco, 

tunik. 

Eye, 

nakro, 

saring, 

non, 

miniktaka. 

Ear, 

kiama, 

yang, 

fora, 

tabaki. 

Mouth, 

bila, 

ingori, 

nraipane, 

dinibas. 

Nose, 

kakma, 

napse, 

meguin, 

nangitak. 

Tongue, 

twisa, 

navel, 

rin, 

tuki. 

Tooth, 

napa, 

nagha, 

quir, 

anaki. 

Hand, 

mita, 

gulala, 

mor, 

tumi. 

Foot, 

mena, 

giiagl. 

san, 

kalkibas. 

House, 

watla, 

tahu, 

chef, 

u. 

Zi 

kumi, 

ita, 

pani, 

(  aslar. 
(  aloslag. 

2, 

wal, 

na, 

matis, 

muye  bu. 

3. 

niupa, 

lagua, 

contis, 

muye  bas. 

4, 

walwal, 

aria, 

urupan, 

muya  runca. 

5, 

matasip, 

saihe, 

casanpani, 

muye  sinca. 

The  above  four  vocabularies  are  taken  from  MS.  material  in  my 
possession  collected  by  E.  G.  Squier  and  Dr.  C.  H.  Berendt.  They 
do  not  appear  to  indicate  the  slightest  relationship  either  between 
themselves,  or  with  any  other  known  stocks.  The  careful  re- 
searches of  Lucien  Adam  on  the  Musquito  grammar  do  not  bring 
it  into  connection  either  with  the  Carib  or  the  Chibcha  families, 
with  which  it  has  sometimes  been  supposed  to  be  affined. 

The  Lenca  dialects,  of  four  of  which  I  have  vocabularies,  do  not 
differ  materially,  but  the  exact  distribution  of  the  stock  at  the 
period  of  the  conquest  is  uncertain. 


342 


THE  AMERICAN   RACE. 


INTER-ISTHMIAN  STOCKS.— (Continued.) 


Guatuso. 


Subtiaba.     Matagalpan.    Xinca. 


Man, 

ochapa, 

rabu, 

misa, 

jumu,  jurac. 

Woman, 

curijuri, 

rabaku, 

y  ueiya, 

ayala. 

Sun, 

toji, 

daska, 

lal, 

pan. 

Moon, 

ziji, 

dukku, 

aiko, 

ahua. 

Fire, 

cuepala, 

agu, 

lauale, 

ura. 

Water, 

ti, 

iia, 

H, 

ui. 

Head, 

machia, 

edi,  ekxu, 

ma'ike, 

gesalia. 

Eye, 

mafi  zicu, 

siktu, 

kunke, 

yurati. 

Ear, 

nato  coto, 

nyahu, 

topalke, 

mami. 

Mouth, 

macoquica, 

daghu, 

tauake, 

xajac. 

Nose, 

natain, 

dakko, 

namke, 

jutu  narin. 

Tongue, 

macu, 

duhun, 

tomamke, 

eilan. 

Tooth, 

oca, 

sinnyu, 

ninike, 

jari  xajan. 

Hand, 

macu  quichia, 

nyau, 

panake, 

pum,  pu. 

Foot, 

naho  quichia, 

nasku, 

napake, 

guapan. 

House, 

uh, 

gu£, 

u, 

macu. 

i, 

anacachumaru, 

imba, 

bas, 

ica. 

2, 

ponca,  pangi, 

apu, 

buyo, 

ti,  piar. 

3, 

assu, 

guatba, 

uala. 

4, 

paque,  posai, 

asku, 

bota'jio, 

iria. 

5. 

uissu, 

pijar. 

The  Guatuso  is  taken  from  the  vocabularies  collected  by  Bishop 
Thiel,  and  several  times  republished.  The  remaining  three  are 
from  MS.  materials  collected  by  Dr.  C.  H.  Berendt.  The  Xinca  I 
have  previously  published,  with  a  general  discussion  of  the  tribe, 
in  the  Proc.  of  the  Amer.  Philosoph.  Soc.,  1885. 

The  Matagalpan  or  "  Chontal  of  Nicaragua  "  (see  ante,  p.  149), 
is  from  the  vocabulary  collected  by  the  Rev.  Victor  Noguera.  It 
appears  to  stand  quite  alone.  A  few  remote  resemblances  to  the 
Talamanca  dialects  of  Costa  Rica  seem  to  exist,  which,  if  real, 
would  connect  the  Matagalpan  with  South  American  stocks. 


LINGUISTIC  APPENDIX. 


343 


Cuna. 


COLUMBIAN  STOCKS. 


Changuina.      Andaqui.  Tucura. 


Man, 

mastule, 

taro, 

himbera. 

Woman, 

puna, 

bia. 

Sun, 

ipe, 

querele, 

caqui, 

ahumautu. 

Moon, 

ni, 

sirala, 

mitae, 

jedeco. 

Fire, 

chau, 

quebu, 

jifi  (=candle). 

Water, 

ti, 

si,  ti,  yi, 

jiji. 

pania. 

Head, 

chag'la, 

(  duku, 
(  quinunuma, 

|  quinaji, 

poru. 

Eye, 

ibia, 

oko, 

sifi, 

tabu. 

Ear, 

ugua, 

kuga, 

sunguajo, 

quiburi. 

Mouth, 

kagya, 

caga,    , 

ite". 

Nose, 

uchue, 

neko, 

quifi, 

kaimbu, 

Tongue, 

guapina, 

cuba, 

sonae. 

Tooth, 

nugada, 

zuu, 

sicoga. 

Hand, 

changa, 

kulosol, 

sacad, 

juwajimi. 

Foot, 

nacamali, 

ser, 

soguapana, 

jenu. 

House, 

neca, 

hu, 

cojoo, 

t<§. 

it 

quenchigue, 

que, 

aba. 

2, 

pogua, 

como, 

unme\ 

3, 

pagua, 

calabach, 

unpia. 

4, 

paquegua, 

calacapa, 

kimare. 

5, 

atale, 

calamale, 

cuesume. 

The  Cuna  and  the  Changuina  or  Dorasque  are  from  M.  Alph. 
Pinart's  various  publications  on  these  dialects  ;  the  Andaqui  from 
the  collections  of  the  Presbyter  Albis  ;  and  the  Tucura,  a  Choco 
dialect,  from  the  report  of  Dr.  A.  Ernst  (Zeitschrift  fur  Ethnol- 
ogic, 1887,  302).  The  last  mentioned  was  obtained  on  the  upper 
Sinu  river,  near  the  junction  of  the  Rio  Verde.  It  is  not  of  the 
San  Bias  (Cuna)  family,  but  clearly  Choco. 

I  have  already  referred  (p.  200)  to  some  slight  similarity  of  the 
Andaqui  to  the  Chibcha  ;  but  until  we  have  more  extensive  mater- 
ial of  the  former,  the  question  must  be  left  open. 


344 


THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 


DIALECTS  OF  THE  CHOCO  STOCK. 

Noanama.        Tado'.        Chami.         Sambo  or  Choco. 


Man, 

emokoyda, 

umujina, 

muguira, 

(  umachin-a. 

(  muguira. 

Woman, 

uida, 

uena, 

huera, 

auera. 

Sun, 

edau, 

pesia, 

utnata, 

pisia,  imuanba. 

Moon, 

edau, 

jedego, 

tedeco, 

jedec6. 

Fire, 

igdn, 

tibua, 

tibuzhia, 

tujoor. 

Water, 

du, 

panea, 

pania, 

(  pania. 
(  do=river. 

Head, 

piidu, 

paru', 

boro, 

poro. 

Eye, 

dau,      i 

tau, 

tao, 

tau. 

Ear, 

cachi, 

ktiru', 

guru, 

juru. 

Mouth, 

i, 

itai', 

gu, 

ji,  itai. 

Nose, 

keun, 

kung, 

y, 

cung,  jun.  ' 

Tongue, 

meujina, 

kinotne, 

guiranee, 

quirame. 

Tooth, 

hierra, 

kida', 

guida, 

tida. 

Hand, 

hua, 

hua', 

tua, 

jua. 

Foot, 

bopidi, 

jinuga', 

tiui, 

jinu. 

House, 

di, 

tee', 

te,  dhe.    , 

i, 

aba, 

aba, 

aba, 

aba. 

2, 

nu, 

ume, 

ube, 

ome. 

3, 

tanjupa, 

kimaris, 

umpea, 

ompea. 

4, 

jay  upa, 

guasurna, 

guimare, 

quimari. 

5, 

juambo, 

kisona, 

guasome, 

guasoma.  j 

The  Choco  family  had  probably  at  one  time  a  much  wider  ex- 
tension than  we  are  familiar  with  in  historic  times.  I  have  sug- 
gested (ant£,  pp.  274,  275),  that  even  the  sparse  material  for  com- 
parison as  yet  available  seems  to  indicate  an  affinity  with  the 
Betoya  stock.  As  our  knowledge  of  the  Orinoco  and  the  Colum- 
bian region  extends,  probably  other  tribes  will  be  discovered 
speaking  related  dialects.  The  four  vocabularies  which  I  give 
above  serve  to  illustrate  the  comparatively  slight  differences  of  the 
phonetics.  Another  dialect,  the  Tucara  (see  ante,  p.  176, 
is  given  on  the  preceding  page. 


LINGUISTIC  APPENDIX. 


345 


DIALECTS  OF  THE  CHIBCHA  STOCK. 


Chibcha, 


Aroac. 


Chimila. 


Guaymi. 


Man, 

muysca, 

sokue, 

sookue", 

nitocua. 

Woman, 

ti-giii, 

yun-kue, 

yuunkue", 

ineri. 

Sun, 

sua, 

yuia, 

neiin-a, 

ninguane. 

Moon, 

chie, 

tii, 

tii, 

s6. 

Fire, 

gata, 

gue*. 

mine", 

nocua. 

Water, 

sie, 

yira, 

niitake, 

si,  na. 

Head, 

zysqui, 

zankalla, 

ookrd, 

thokua. 

Eye, 

upcua, 

uba, 

uaakua, 

ocua. 

Ear, 

cuhuca, 

kuhcua, 

kuusaka, 

olo. 

Mouth, 

quihica, 

kohka, 

kookua, 

cada. 

Nose, 

saca, 

niksain, 

naanakra, 

secua. 

Tongue, 

pcua, 

kuca, 

kua 

tudra. 

Tooth, 

sica, 

kohka  (?), 

n£, 

tu. 

Hand, 

yta, 

atta-kra, 

aattakra, 

cuse. 

Foot, 

quihicha, 

ksa,  pukre", 

pookre", 

ngoto. 

House, 

giie, 

hui, 

adtaka, 

J6. 

i, 

ata, 

kute", 

kute", 

kr-ati. 

2, 

boza, 

moga, 

muuhna, 

kro-bu. 

3, 

mica, 

maigua, 

teieme', 

kro-mai. 

4, 

muihica, 

muriele", 

murieie", 

kro-boko. 

5, 

hisca, 

achigua, 

(  kutendeu- 
)      rehattagra, 

I  kro-rigua. 

The  relations  of  the  Chibcha  dialects  are  so  important  in  their 
bearings  on  the  question  of  the  migrations  from  South  into  North 
America,  that  in  addition  to  the  specific  comparisons  on  page  186, 
I  here  add  vocabularies  of  six  dialects  ;  three,  the  Chibcha,  Aroac 
and  Chimila,  from  south  of  the  Isthmus,  and  three,  the  Guaymi, 
Talamanca  and  Boruca,  from  north  of  it. 

The  Chibcha  proper  is  a  language  of  extremely  difficult  phonet- 
ics for  a  European,  and  doubtless  the  Spanish  orthography,  in 
which  it  is  rendered,  is  far  from  accurate. 

The  fundamental  identity  of  the  dialects  of  the  stock  becomes 
much  more  apparent  after  a  study  of  their  laws  of  phonetic  varia- 
tion, as  set  forth  by  Dr.  Max  Uhle  (ant£,  p.  185). 


THE  AMERICAN   RACE. 


CHIBCHA  STOCK. 


COLUMBIAN  STOCKS. 


f 

Talamanca. 

Boruca. 

Paniquita. 

"•—% 
Timote. 

vipa, 

con-rokh, 

piz,  petam, 

(  mayoi. 
\  kak,  nachu. 

ardcra, 

kam-rokh, 

neyo,  cuenas, 

(  kursum. 
}  naktun. 

divu, 

kak, 

itaqui, 

mpu. 

turu, 

tebe, 

ate. 

yuk, 

dukra, 

ipi, 

chirip,  fu. 

di, 

di, 

yo. 

chimpue". 

tsuko, 

sagra, 

dicte", 

kicham. 

vubra, 

caix, 

yafi. 

cucxih, 

cuaga, 

t6gnue, 

timabum. 

(  macab6. 

sacu, 

casa, 

yugue, 

(  karichnuck. 

chi'scah, 

xiska, 

inz. 

ku, 

tone, 

chiqui  vu. 

aka, 

quith. 

ura, 

dijurre, 

cose. 

iucra, 

di-krescua, 

chinda, 

kuju. 

huh, 

yath, 

nakot. 

et, 

yas,  vitech, 

kari. 

tug, 

enz, 

gem. 

mang, 

tec, 

sut,  hisjut. 

keng, 

panz, 

pit. 

skera, 

taz, 

(  caboc. 
(  mubes. 

Man, 

Woman, 

Sun, 

Moon, 

Fire, 

Water, 

Head, 

Eye, 

Ear, 

Mouth, 

Nose, 

Tongue, 

Tooth, 

Hand, 

Foot, 

House, 


2, 

3, 
4. 


The  Talamanca  and  Boruca  are  Chibcha  dialects  (see  preceding 
page).  The  Paniquita  (see  ante,  pp.  190-192)  has  no  positive  affin- 
ities with  its  neighbors.  The  grammatical  character  of  its  Paez 
dialect  has  been  analyzed  by  Fr.  Miiller  (Grundriss  der  Sprach- 
wissenschaft,  Bd.  II.,  Ab.  L,  p.  356).  He  points  out  some  similar- 
ity in  the  numerals  to  the  Kechua  and  Goajiro.  But  this  is  not 
significant. 

The  various  vocabularies  of  the  Timote  stock  differ  considerably, 
and  none  of  them  is  at  all  complete. 


1INGUISTIC  APPENDIX. 


347 


DIALECTS  OF  THE 
BARBACOA  STOCK. 


DIALECTS  OF  THE 
COCANUCO  STOCK. 


Man, 

Woman, 

Sun, 

Moon, 

Fire, 

Water, 

Head, 

Eye, 

Ear, 

Mouth, 

Nose, 

Tongue, 

Teeth, 

Hand, 

Foot, 

Home, 

i, 

2, 

3. 
4, 
5. 


Colorado. 

Cayapa. 

Moguex. 

Totoro. 

zachi,  unilla, 

liu-pula, 

muck, 

mujel. 

sona,  sonala, 

su-pula, 

schut, 

ishu. 

i6, 

pacta, 

puizarum. 

pe, 

macara, 

puil. 

ni, 

ninguma, 

ipt. 

pi. 

pi. 

pii. 

muchfi, 

mishpuca, 

pusro, 

pushu. 

cac6, 

capucua, 

cap, 

captchul. 

pungui, 

calo. 

fiquiforo, 

tipaqui, 

chidbchad, 

trictrap. 

quinfu, 

kijo, 

kind, 

kim. 

nigca, 

nile. 

tesco, 

tchugul. 

tede, 

fia-papa, 

coze, 

cambil. 

nede, 

ne-papa, 

kadzigd. 

ia, 

ya. 

yaatk, 

ia. 

manga, 

kanendova. 

paluga, 

pubuin. 

paimun, 

puinbun. 

humbalu!6, 

pipuin. 

manta. 

tchajpun. 

A  comparison  of  the  above  vocabularies  will  probably  strengthen 
the  supposition  I  have  advanced  (ant£,  p.  199),  that  these  two 
stocks  were  originally  branches  of  one  and  the  same.  The  material 
on  all  the  dialects  is  scanty,  and  for  a  proper  grammatical  collation 
is  quite  wanting.  As  they  are  yet  living  idioms,  it  is  to  be  hoped 
that  some  energetic  traveler  will  supply  the  facts  to  solve  the 
question.  The  sources  of  the  vocabularies  are  indicated  in  the 
text 


348  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

PERUVIAN  STOCKS. 
Kechua.  Aymara,  Yunca.        Atacameno. 


Man, 

runa, 

hague,  chacha, 

nofoen, 

sima. 

Woman, 

huarmi, 

marmi, 

mecherrcec, 

licau. 

Sun, 

inti, 

inti,  villca, 

xllang, 

capim. 

Moon, 

quilla, 

phakhsi, 

jamur. 

Fire, 

iiina, 

nina, 

humur. 

Water, 

una,  yacu, 

uma, 

la,  leng, 

puri. 

Head, 

uma, 

ppekena, 

lecq, 

hlacsi. 

Eye, 

iiuui, 

nayra, 

locq, 

kjepi. 

Ear, 

rincri, 

hinchu, 

medeng, 

aike. 

Mouth, 

si  mi, 

lacca, 

ssap, 

khaipe. 

Nose, 

sencca, 

nasa, 

fon,  misi, 

sipe. 

Tongue, 

ccallu, 

lakhra, 

ed, 

lasi. 

Tooth, 

quiru, 

lacca,  cchacca, 

cecquang, 

quenne. 

Hand, 

inaqui, 

ampara, 

moecqua, 

suyi. 

Foot, 

chaqui, 

cayu, 

loc, 

khoche. 

House, 

huasi, 

uta, 

enec,  lee,  an, 

turi. 

I, 

hue, 

mayni,  maya, 

onoc,  na, 

sema. 

2, 

iscay, 

pani,  paya, 

atput,  pac, 

poya. 

3, 

quimsa, 

quimsa, 

copaet,  goc, 

palama. 

4, 

tahua, 

pusi, 

nopoet,  noc, 

chalpa. 

5> 

pichka, 

pisca, 

exllmatzh, 

mutsma 

The  wide  differences  between  the  four  main  Peruvian  stocks  are 
seen  in  the  above  vocabularies.  The  Kechua  and  Aymara  alone 
have  anything  in  common.  The  Yunca  is  presented  in  the  Mochica 
dialect,  which  is  that  adopted  by  Carrera  in  his  Grammar.  The 
vocabulary  of  the  Etenes,  as  furnished  by  Bastian,  differs  from  it 
only  in  the  word  for  "eye,"  tassack,  and  "  head,"  chdtz,  which  is 
remarkable,  considering  the  extreme  dime- Ity  of  the  Yunca  pho- 
netics. The  grammars  of  these  three  tongues  are  carefully  ana- 
lyzed by  Fr.  Miiller. 

The  Atacameno  words  are  from  the  authorities  quoted  on  p.  227. 
Of  its  grammar  we  have  only  the  imperfect  account  furnished  by 
San  Roman,  which  seems  to  remove  it  from  the  character  of  the 
Kechua  and  Aymara. 


LINGUISTIC   APPENDIX. 


349 


SOUTH  ATLANTIC  LINGUISTIC  STOCKS. 
Arawak.  Tapuya.  Tupi.        Kiriri. 

kloh. 

kiitsi. 

utschih. 

cayacu. 

issuh. 

dzu. 

tzambu. 

po-nubi. 

benjen. 

oriza. 

nambih. 

nunuh. 

dza. 


Man, 

wadili 

(  samnaha, 
(  waha, 

>  apyaba, 

Woman, 

hiaeru, 

zokna, 

cunha, 

Sun, 

haddali, 

taru  te  mu, 

curasse, 

Moon, 

katti, 

kmuniak, 

jaci, 

Fire, 

hikkihi, 

chompek, 

tata, 

Water, 

wuini, 

munia, 

hy, 

Head, 

krain, 

canga, 

Eye, 

akussi, 

ketom, 

tesa, 

Ear, 

adikkehi, 

nunk-hon, 

namby, 

Mouth, 

uelleru  kuhu 

,    nima, 

juru, 

Nose, 

issirihi, 

kigin, 

iting, 

Tongue, 

uejehi, 

kzigiok, 

japecong, 

Tooth, 

an, 

(  zhun, 
(  yune, 

>  ainha, 

Hand, 

uekabbu, 

po, 

ypo. 

Foot, 

ukutti, 

po, 

py. 

House, 

bahii, 

kjiemm, 

oka, 

I, 

abba, 

pogik, 

jebe, 

2, 

biama, 

nom, 

mucuing, 

3. 

kabbuhin, 

tscho  caorhu, 

musapui, 

4, 

bibiti, 

iapes  chacoron 

,  erundi. 

5, 

abbatekabbe, 

nonhoron. 

mnssang. 

bouih. 

era,  bate. 

bihe. 

wachani. 

wachani  dikie. 


The  four  chief  stocks  of  the  eastern  Amazon  region  present  a 
fundamental  diversity  both  in  vocabulary  and  grammar.  The  Ara- 
\vak  is  shown  as  it  is,  as  current  in  Guiana  and  along  the  northern 
affluents  of  the  Amazon  ;  the  Tapuya  is  in  the  dialect  of  the  Boto- 
cudos,  as  presented  by  Dr.  Paul  Ehrenreich  ;  the  Tupi  is  the 
"lingua  geral  "  of  Brazil;  and  the  Kiriri  is  from  the  Arte  of 
Mamiani. 

In  most  of  the  South  Atlantic  stocks  the  numerals  are  imper- 
fectly developed,  all  quantities  above  three  being  usually  expressed 
by  compound  words. 


350  THE  AMERICAN   RACE. 

DIALECTS  OF  THE  ARAWAK  STOCK. 
Chontaquiro.       Baniva.        Piapoco.  Guana. 


Man, 

geji, 

enami, 

ima, 

j  hapohitai. 

]  tahanan. 

Woman, 

sichune", 

neyau, 

inanahi, 

zeeno. 

Sun, 

intiti, 

amorci, 

ureri, 

kat-hai. 

Moon, 

cachiri, 

\  pia>. 
(  achita, 

|  keri, 

kohaivai. 

Fire, 

chichi, 

arsi, 

kitsai, 

incu. 

Water, 

une", 

ueni, 

huni, 

houna. 

Head, 

huejijua, 

\  ibupi, 
(  nombo, 

[  ivita, 

kombaipoi. 

Eye, 

huijarsaje", 

nu  puri, 

nouto  ui, 

onguei. 

Ear, 

huijepe, 

notarifara, 

gua-wui, 

guaihaino. 

Mouth, 

huespe", 

e-noma, 

wa-numa, 

baho. 

Nose, 

huisiri, 

pe-yapa, 

nouiacou, 

agueiri. 

Tongue, 

guene, 

n-hotare, 

wa-nimi, 

nahaiuai. 

Tooth, 

huise, 

na-si, 

yai, 

onhai. 

Hand, 

huamianuta, 

capi, 

ha-  capi, 

no. 

Foot, 

huisiqui, 

itsipara, 

ouabari, 

djahavai. 

House, 

panchi, 

panisi, 

capi, 

maihaino. 

I, 

suriti, 

abehita, 

poikoja. 

2, 

apiri, 

pucheibata, 

pid-djaho. 

3. 

noquiri, 

maisibba, 

mopoa. 

4, 

ticti, 

bainoco, 

honaton. 

5, 

tictisiri, 

abemo  hacapi, 

houakoo. 

These  four  vocabularies  of  some  dialects  of  the  Arawak  stock, 
from  localities  wide  apart,  disclose  extensive  variations  from  the 
standard  tongue.  They  are,  however,  rather  apparent  than  real, 
and  often  depend  on  either  variations  in  orthography,  or  the  sub- 
stitution of  synonymous  or  allied  words.  This  is  well  seen  in  the 
comparative  table  of  thirty-six  Arawak  dialects  presented  in  tabu- 
lar form  by  Karl  von  den  Steinen  in  his  Durch  Central- Brasilieii, 
s.  294.  Neither  he  nor  Adam  includes  the  Chontaquiro  in  the 
Arawak  stock,  but  a  comparison  of  vocabularies  leaves  no  doubt 
about  it.  The  Chontaquiro  prefix  h  ue  is  the  Piapoco.g-wa,  =  ' '  thy. ' ' 


LINGUISTIC  APPENDIX. 


351 


DIALECTS  OF  THE  CARIB  STOCK. 


JBakairi. 


Motilone. 


Guaque.       Tamanaca. 


Man, 

uguruto, 

yaTtano, 

guire, 

nuani. 

Woman, 

pekoto, 

esate, 

guerechi, 

aica. 

Sun, 

tsisi, 

giiicho, 

uehi. 

Moon, 

nuna, 

kuna, 

nuna. 

Fire, 

pS'to, 

giiesta, 

majoto. 

Water, 

paru, 

kuna-siase, 

tuna. 

Head, 

kjinara^ru, 

jutuye, 

prutpe. 

Eye, 

k*anu', 

anu, 

emuru, 

januru. 

Ear, 

k^i  uanata', 

pana, 

janari, 

panari. 

Mouth, 

kji  ta'A, 

indare. 

Nose, 

k^ana'/l, 

ona, 

onari. 

Tongue, 

lax  u'lu, 

inico, 

num. 

Tooth, 

k*  ie'a, 

kiyuko, 

yeri. 

Hand, 

k£  ama'/l, 

oma, 

ninare, 

jamgnari. 

Foot, 

k^  u^uA, 

pisa, 

iyu  puru, 

ptari. 

House, 

6td, 

pesoa, 

migna. 

i, 

tokalole, 

tukum-arko, 

ovin. 

2, 

asage, 

kos-arko, 

oco. 

3, 

asage-tokalo, 

koser-arko, 

orva. 

4, 

asage-asage, 

kosaj-taka. 

5, 

oma  (hand). 

The  oldest  existing  forms  of  the  Carib  stock  are  believed  by  Von 
den  Steinen  to  be  preserved  in  the  Bakairi,  which  I  have  accord- 
ingly placed  first  in  the  vocabularies  of  this  family. 

The  Motilone,  which  is  placed  beside  it,  is  one  of  the  most 
northwestern  dialects,  and  shows  singular  tenacity  of  the  radicals 
of  the  language. 

The  Guaque,  which  is  substantially  the  same  as  the  Carijona,  is 
the  extreme  western  member  of  the  family,  but  presents  unmis- 
takably the  physiognomy  of  the  stock. 

Of  the  Tamanaca  I  have  seen  but  incomplete  specimens,  but  on 
account  of  its  former  importance,  I  insert  it  in  this  connection. 


352 


THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 


DIALECTS  OF  THE  CARIB  STOCK.— Continued. 
Roucouyenne.      Macuchi.      Maquiritare.        Cumanagoto. 


Man, 

okiri, 

uratae, 

rahuwari, 

guarayto. 

Woman, 

oli, 

nery, 

wiri, 

guariche. 

Sun, 

chichi, 

uci,  oudi, 

chi, 

sis. 

Moon, 

nunu, 

capoui, 

nonna, 

nuna. 

Fire, 

uapot, 

apo, 

guahato. 

Water, 

tuna, 

tuna, 

tona, 

tuna. 

Head, 

itepuru, 

popahy, 

iyoha, 

putpo. 

Eye, 

yanuru, 

ye'nu,  tenu, 

yenur,  ono. 

Ear, 

panari, 

panure, 

ihanarri, 

panar. 

Mouth, 

uaiamu, 

unta, 

intarri, 

umptar. 

Nose, 

yemna, 

yuna, 

yonari, 

ona. 

Tongue, 

nulu, 

unurn, 

iwini, 

nuri. 

Tooth, 

ye"  re", 

piriabura, 

adderri, 

yer. 

Hand, 

yamuru, 

yanda, 

arra  mori, 

yemiar. 

Foot, 

pupuru, 

uta, 

ohorro, 

putar. 

House, 

pacolo, 

euete, 

ahute, 

pata. 

i, 

auini, 

tiuim, 

toni, 

tibin. 

2, 

uake'ne', 

sagane", 

hake, 

achac. 

3, 

eleuau, 

siruane", 

arrowawa, 

achoroao. 

4, 

sacrere", 

hake  kiema, 

yzpe. 

5, 

matiquim, 

petpe. 

The  Roucouyenne  and  Macuchi  are  dialects  on  either  slope  of 
the  sierra  south  of  Guyana.  Both  appear  to  have  been  affected  by 
their  proximity  to  the  Arawak  stock. 

The  Maquiritare  of  the  Orinoco  and  the  Cumanagoto  of  the 
northern  portion  of  Venezuela  are  comparatively  closely  related, 
and  both  present  few  foreign  elements. 

We  may  expect  a  thorough  treatment  of  the  comparative  gram- 
mar of  the  Carib  dialects  from  M.  Lucien  Adam,  who  is  engaged 
in  this  study  at  the  present  time. 

A  large  amount  of  material  has  been  collected  by  Von  den 
Steinen,  of  which  but  a  small  portion  has  been  published.  It  re- 
lates principally  to  the  southern  Carib  dialects. 


LINGUISTIC  APPENDIX. 
LANGUAGES  OF  THE  ORINOCO  BASIN. 


353 


Of  one  and 

Peba. 

Yahua. 

Saliva. 

Catare. 

Man, 

comoley, 

huano, 

cocco. 

Woman, 

watoa, 

huaturuna, 

gnacu. 

Sun, 

bueno, 

wana, 

hini, 

mumeseche- 

( 

cocco. 

Moon, 

cano, 

remelane, 

arimaney, 

vexio. 

Fire, 

fot6, 

feula, 

jigney, 

egussa. 

Water, 

tuna, 

ain, 

aah, 

cagua. 

Head, 

iube,  siyoco, 

raino, 

firignio. 

Eye, 

ieu,  yeo, 

vinimichi, 

huiranca, 

pacute". 

Ear, 

itana,  stana, 

mituva, 

ontisiui, 

aicupana. 

Mouth, 

rito, 

huicama, 

aaja. 

Nose, 

iena,  yena, 

vinerro, 

unirou, 

incuu. 

Tongue, 

inu,  syno. 

Tooth, 

viala. 

Hand, 

iaso,  iyaso, 

vi-nitaily, 

hui  janpana, 

immom6. 

Foot, 

idebu,  stuyo, 

vi  nimotay, 

muniumatu, 

caabapa. 

House, 

mune, 

lowarrey, 

rore. 

i, 

tomeulay, 

tekini. 

2, 

nomoira, 

nanojui. 

3, 

tamoimansa, 

munua. 

4, 

namerayo, 

nairojuino. 

5, 

taonella, 

tenaja. 

The  Opone  and  the  Carare  have  evidently  been  subjected  to 
foreign  influences,  but  still  retain  the  characteristics  of  the  Carib 
dialects. 

The  Peba  and  the  Yahua  are  not  attached  to  the  Carib  family. 
They,  however,  reveal  the  traces  of  its  influence,  and  appear  to 
have  adopted  many  words  from  it.  Probably  they  are  largely  jar- 
gons, and  between  themselves  indicate  a  rather  close  relationship. 

Of  the  Saliva,  which  seems  to  stand  alone,  the  materials  are  in- 
adequate.    Some  texts,  with  an  effort  at  a  grammatical  analysis, 
are  given  in  the  Mithridaies,  III.,  s.  625. 
23 


354 


THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 


LANGUAGES  OF  THE  ORINOCO  BASIN.— (Continued.) 


Otomaca. 

Piaroa. 

Guaraouna. 

Guahiba. 

Man, 

andoua, 

ovo, 

guarao, 

pebi. 

Woman, 

ondoua, 

ysaho,     -< 

ibama, 
tira, 

petiriba,  C. 
pihaoua. 

Sun, 

noua, 

morho, 

hoke, 

wameto,  C. 
icatia,  isota. 

Moon, 

oura, 

chawa, 

guanica, 

oamito. 

Fire, 

noua, 

ocoura, 

hecouno, 

isoto. 

Water, 

ia, 

ahiia, 

ho, 

mera. 

Head, 

chu. 

{ 

pemoto  hocota,  C., 
ibun. 

Eye, 

chiahere, 

yto  huto. 

Ear, 

cacoco,       -| 

pemohuyo  roto,  C., 
nu  tanipara. 

Mouth, 

chaha, 

doco, 

pinpierda. 

Nose, 

chihino, 

ca-icari, 

pepomuteito. 

Tongue, 

chame, 

peeberta. 

Tooth, 

chacou, 

ca-ycay, 

bono. 

Hand, 

chumu, 

ca-mahu, 

napi. 

Foot, 

chinepo, 

omu, 

petahu. 

House, 

hanouco, 

ta-habo  (my). 

r, 

enga, 

itchaca, 

cahene. 

2, 

de, 

manamo, 

nawanube. 

3, 

yakia, 

dianamo, 

acueyani. 

4, 

depitade, 

urabocaya, 

penaya  autsiva. 

5, 

ionga  pinibo, 

uabachi, 

cahecobe. 

The  above  four  lengue  matrice  were  among  the  most  important 
on  the  Orinoco.  The  Guaraouna  or  Warrau  was,  and  continues  to 
be,  spoken  by  the  tribes  of  the  delta,  who  are  numerous  and  in- 
telligent, when  they  have  a  fair  chance  to  live  undisturbed. 

Of  the  Otomaca  only  the  merest  fragments  have  been  published, 
and  my  vocabulary  is  nearly  empty. 

Several  recent  travelers  have  brought  back  information  about  the 
Piaroa  and  Guahiba,  some  of  which  may  be  found  in  the  eighth 
volume  of  the  Bibliothkque  Linguistiqwe  AmZricaine  (Paris,  1882), 
with  observations  by  M.  Adam.  C.  refers  to  Chaffanjon. 


LINGUISTIC   APPENDIX. 


355 


LANGUAGES  OF  THE  ORINOCO  BASIN.—  (Continued.) 

Omagua. 

Yarura. 

Betoya. 

Correguaje. 

Man, 

ava,  mena, 

pume, 

umasoi, 

emiud,  pai. 

Woman, 

huaina,  cunia, 

ibi,  ain, 

ro. 

Sun, 

huarassi, 

do, 

teo-umasoi, 

ense. 

Moon, 

yase, 

goppe, 

teo-ro, 

paimia. 

Fire, 

tata, 

conde1, 

futui. 

Water, 

uni, 

uui, 

ocudu, 

oc5. 

Head, 

yacue, 

pacchd, 

rosaca, 

si  j  ope. 

Eye, 

zaicana, 

j  batchioo,  C., 
(  jonde, 

\  ufoniba, 

nancoca. 

Ear, 

nami, 

cajoroso. 

Mouth, 

yuru, 

yaoo,  C. 

Nose, 

ti, 

nappe, 

jusaca, 

jinquepui. 

(  hilm,  C., 

) 

Tongue, 

cumuera, 

(  toppono, 

>  ineca, 

chimenu. 

Tooth, 

say, 

hundee,  C., 

cojini. 

Hand, 

pua, 

icchi, 

rum-cosi, 

jete. 

Foot, 

pueta, 

tahoo,  C., 

rem-oca, 

coapi. 

House, 

vica, 

guce. 

I, 

uyepe, 

caname, 

edojojoi. 

2, 

nmcuica, 

(  adotchami, 
(  fioeni, 

1  edoi. 

3, 

iruaca, 

tarani, 

ibutu. 

4, 

adoitchemi. 

5, 

canikiro. 

The  Omagua  is  a  well-marked  Tupi  dialect.  Adam  has  shown 
the  grammatical  concordances  clearly  (Compte-Rendu  du  Cong, 
des  Amcr.,  1888,  p.  496). 

The  Yarura  and  Betoya  reveal  faint  resemblances  in  the  words 
for  "  sun  "  and  "  tongue  "  ;  but  not  enough  to  justify  assuming  a 
relationship.  Their  grammars  are  quite  unlike,  that  of  the  Yarura 
preceding  by  suffixes,  that  of  the  Betoya  by  prefixes  (see  Miiller, 
Sprachwissenschaft,  Bd.  II.,  Ab.  I.,  s.  361). 

The  Correguaje  shows  less  analogy  to  the  Betoya  in  the  above 
vocabulary  than  in  a  more  extended  comparison.  The  word  for 
water,  oco,  reappears  in  a  number  of  dialects  not  akin  to  this  stock, 
and  is  perhaps  allied  to  the  Chinchasuyujflcw  (seeaw^,  p.  205). 


356 


THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 


DIALECTS  OF  THE  UPPER  AMAZONIAN  BASIN. 

Pano.  Culino.         Bar£.  Puinavi. 


Man, 

buene,  huebo, 

nukung, 

ehinari. 

Woman, 

avio,  yusabu, 

auy, 

hinatape. 

Sun, 

bari, 

wari, 

camuhu, 

iama. 

Moon, 

usde,  osi, 

ozii, 

ki, 

heboet. 

Fire, 

si, 

yuai, 

cameni. 

Water, 

uaca,  unpas, 

uaka, 

huni, 

u,  eti. 

Head, 

macho,  mapo, 

mazu, 

dosia, 

ahouiat. 

Eye, 

buero, 

wiirru, 

iwiti, 

ambic. 

Ear, 

pauke", 

tsaybynky, 

idatini, 

about. 

Mouth, 

uscha,  ibi, 

ecuacha, 

inuma, 

aye". 

Nose, 

desan, 

riiky, 

itti, 

mohec. 

Tongue, 

ana, 

anu, 

inene, 

arok. 

Tooth, 

seta,  sena, 

sita, 

heheyi. 

Hand-, 

maku, 

nucobi, 

arap. 

Foot, 

tacu,  taru, 

whyta, 

isi, 

asim. 

House, 

subo, 

subu. 

I, 

paju, 

uiity, 

bacanacari, 

atam. 

2, 

dabui,  ruba, 

rabii, 

bicunama, 

ahao. 

3, 

muken  aute, 

takuma, 

kirikunama, 

apaoui. 

4, 

akaouno. 

5, 

dap  tan. 

The  grammatical  and  phonetic  relations  of  the  Pano  stock  have 
been  judiciously  analyzed  by  M.  Raoul  de  la  Grasserie  (Compte- 
Rendu  du  Cong,  des  Amer.,  1888,  p.  438,  sq.)-  The  Pano  and 
Culino  are  seen  to  be  closely  connected,  those  who  use  the  one 
doubtless  understanding  the  other. 

The  Bare,  which  is  an  Arawak  dialect,  I  have  inserted  here  for 
the  sake  of  convenience. 

The  Puinavi  is  unclassified  (see  ant£,  p.  278).  In  the  few  words 
above  given,  those  for  "sun,"  "water,  "and  "  foot  "  appear  to 
have  affinities  to  the  Bar£. 


LINGUISTIC  APPENDIX. 


357 


DIALECTS  OF 


THE  UPPER  AMAZONIAN 
(Continued.) 


BASIN.— 


Catoquina.     Ticuna. 

Zaparo. 

Tucano. 

Man, 

eu,                iyate, 

taucuo, 

euma,  mina. 

Woman, 

aina,             niai, 

itiumu, 

numea. 

Sun, 

tscha,           ehajeh, 

yano'cua, 

muipu. 

Moon, 

wahlya, 

cashi'cua, 

mama  nunpo. 

Fire, 

ychta,          ejheh, 

anarais-hu'cua, 

pecame"e. 

Water, 

uata-hy,       aaitchu, 

muricha, 

oc6. 

Head, 

ghy,             nahairu, 

a'naca, 

dipua. 

Eye, 

ygho,           nehaai, 

namijia, 

caperi. 

Ear, 

masaehta,    nachiuai, 

taure, 

umepero. 

Mouth, 

nunaghv,    naha, 

atupa'ma, 

sero. 

Nose, 

opaghp6,     naran, 

najucua, 

eke"d. 

Tongue, 

nogho,         kohny, 

ririccia, 

ye'me'n6. 

Tooth, 

y,                  taputa, 

icare, 

upiry. 

Hand, 

paghy,         tapamai, 

ichiosa, 

amupamd. 

Foot, 

achtnan,      nacoutai, 

inocua, 

dipoca. 

House, 

ih,  hi, 

itia, 

uiy'. 

i, 

heghykty,  hucih, 

nucua'qui, 

nekeu. 

2, 

upaua,          tarepueh, 

anamis-hinaqui 

,   piana. 

3. 

tupaua,        tomepueh, 

aimucuraque, 

itiana. 

4, 

hoyhan,       ague  mouji,  \ 

huet  sara  maja 
itiaca, 

[•  bapalitina. 

5, 

hueamepueh, 

nianucua, 

nicumakina. 

The  Catoquina  and  Ticuna  are  mixed  dialects  or  jargons,  but 
clearly  related  to  each  other.  Martius  hesitated  whether  to  assign 
them  to  his  "  Guck  "  or  his  "  Ges  "  stem.  They  both  contain  ele- 
ments of  the  Arawak,  probably  by  borrowing.  Locally  they  are 
neighbors.  The  vocabulary  of  Ticuna  is  from  Paul  Marcoy's  work. 

The  Tucano,  which  is  in  the  form  obtained  by  Coudreau,  shows 
elements  of  Betoya  and  Arawak.  Its  relationship  to  the  Tapuya  is 
not  fully  established. 

The  Zaparo  from  the  Putumayo  is  from  the  collection  of  Oscu- 
lati.  It  does  not  seem  in  any  way  related  to  the  great  stocks  of  the 
Amazonian  region. 


358 


THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 


DIALECTS  OF 

THE  UPPER  AMAZONIAN  BASIN.— 

(Continued.) 

Tacana. 

Maropa. 

Sapibocona. 

Araua. 

Man, 

deja, 

dreja, 

reanci, 

maquida. 

Woman, 

ano, 

anu, 

anu, 

waidaua. 

Sun, 

ireti, 

isjeti, 

mahi. 

Moon, 

ban, 

bantri, 

bari, 

massicu. 

Fire, 

quati, 

cuati, 

cuati, 

sihu. 

Water,    - 

eave, 
jene, 

j-yuvi, 

eubi, 

paha. 

Head, 

echu, 

echuja, 

echuja. 

Eye, 

etra  drun 

dru,     eta  chundru 

,    etua  churu. 

Ear, 

edaja, 

eshacuena. 

Mouth, 

equatri, 

equatra. 

Nose, 

evieni, 

evi, 

evi. 

Tongue, 

eana, 

eana, 

eana. 

Tooth, 

etre, 

etre. 

Hand, 

ema, 

erne, 

eme, 

usafa. 

Foot, 

equatri, 

evatri, 

ebbachi, 

otama. 

House, 

ejtej, 

etai, 

zami. 

i, 

pea, 

pembive. 

carata, 

\varihi. 

2, 

beta, 

beta, 

mitia, 

famihi. 

3, 

quimisha, 

camisha, 

curapa, 

arishafahs 

4, 

puchi, 

puschi. 

5, 

puchica, 

pischica. 

The  interesting  group  of  the  Tacana  stock  is  illustrated  above 
by  three  of  its  dialects.  I  regret  that  the  recent  publication  on 
the  Arauna  by  Rev.  Nicolas  Armentia  (Navegacion  del  Rio Madre 
de  Dios)  has  not  been  accessible  to  me. 

The  scanty  vocabulary  of  the  Araua  does  not  permit  any  ex- 
tended study  of  its  relations. 

I  call  attention  to  the  numerals  of  the  Sapibocona  and  Cayubaba 
as  given  above  and  on  page  360.  Prof.  Fr.  Miiller  has  transposed 
the  two  in  his  lists  of  examples  (Sfirachzvissenschaft,  II.,  I.,  p.  438. 
Compare  Mithridates,  III.,  p.  576). 


LINGUISTIC   APPENDIX. 


359 


LANGUAGES  OF 

THE  BOLIVIAN  HIGHLANDS. 

Yurucare. 

Itene. 

Satnucu. 

Chiquito. 

Man, 

sufie, 

huatiki, 

f  vairigue, 
Inani,  H., 

|  nofiich. 

Woman, 

yee, 

tana, 

f  yacotea, 
tcheke,  H., 

|  paich. 

Sun, 

puine, 

mapito, 

yede, 

anene,  zuuch. 

Moon, 

subi, 

panevo, 

etosia, 

vaach,  paas. 

Fire, 

aima, 

iche, 

pioc, 

pee. 

Water, 

sama, 

como, 

yod, 

tuuch. 

Head, 

dala, 

mahui, 

yatodo, 

taanys. 

Eye, 

tanti,  taute\ 

to, 

yedoy, 

nosuto. 

Ear, 

meye, 

iniri, 

yagorone, 

f  nonemasu. 

\  umapus. 

Mouth, 

pile, 

ai. 

Nose, 

unte, 

yacunachu, 

ina. 

Tongue, 

otu. 

Tooth, 

sansa, 

00. 

Hand, 

bana, 

uru, 

ymanaetio, 

f  panaucos. 

lees,  H. 

Foot, 

te  farafka, 

irie, 

pope. 

House, 

(  vive,  techte,  ' 
\     siba, 

\ 

poo. 

I, 

lecia,  lecca, 

chomara, 

etama. 

2, 

lasie, 

gar. 

3, 

libi, 

gaddioc. 

4, 

lapsa. 

5, 

cheti. 

The  variety  of  stocks  on  the  Bolivian  highlands  is  clearly  shown 
by  the  vocabularies  on  this  and  the  following  page.  I  have  taken 
them  from  the  D'Orbigny  MSS.,  in  the  Bibliothe'que  Nationale, 
Paris,  the  collections  of  Hervas,  and  the  papers  of  E.  Heath  in  the 
Kansas  City  Review,  1883.  I  have  not  been  able  to  connect  any 
one  of  the  eight  tongues  with  any  other,  although  each  has  some 
words  which  have  been  borrowed  from  others  or  from  some  com- 
mon stock.  Thus,  the  Yurucare  sufie,  man,  Mosetena  zoni,  Chi- 
quito fionich,  are  too  similar  not  to  be  from  the  same  radical.  It 
must  be  remembered  that  the  Chiquito  was  adopted  by  the  mis- 


360  THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 

LANGUAGES  OF  THE   BOLIVIAN  HIGHLANDS.— 
(Continued.) 

Canichana.        Mosetena,         Cayubaba.        Mobima. 


Man,        -< 

hiochama, 
enacu,  D., 

[•  zoni, 

meye"se, 

iti-laqua. 

Woman, 

huiquigaue, 

phen, 

tenani, 

j  cue'ya, 

(  cue  ya,  H. 

Sun, 

ni-cojli, 

tsun, 

itoco, 

jtino. 

(  mossi,  H. 

Moon, 

ni-milaue, 

yvua, 

irara, 

yeche. 

Fire, 

ni-chuco, 

tsi, 

idore, 

vuee. 

Water, 

nih-tji, 

ozni, 

ikita, 

to'mi. 

Head, 

ni-mucukh, 

hutchi, 

guana-quana,  ba-quaqua. 

Eye, 

eu-tokhe, 

ve,  />/.,  vein, 

en-chaco, 

tsora. 

Ear, 

eu-comeh, 

chon, 

ena-jengicui, 

lototo. 

Mouth, 

eu-chene, 

choo, 

en-diachi, 

cuana. 

Nose, 

e-ebje", 

hey, 

ena-hauve"o, 

j  ba-chi. 
j  chini,  H. 

Tongue, 

eu-tschdva, 

nem, 

ena-yi, 

j  ruchlan, 
(  rulcua,  H. 

Tooth,     | 

eu-huti, 
eu-cuti,  D., 

)  monyin 
J    (//•), 

1 

soichlan. 

Hand, 

eu-tehli, 

un, 

en-dadra, 

j  chopan. 
(  zoipok,  H. 

Foot, 

eu-ajts, 

yu. 

en-arje, 

risan. 

House, 

nit-cojl, 

aca, 

droya,   asna. 

i, 

mereca, 

zrit, 

pebbi. 

2, 

caadita, 

pana, 

bbeta. 

3, 

caarjata, 

chibbin, 

kimisa. 

4, 

tsis. 

5, 

canam. 

sionaries  as  the  general  language  for  instruction,  and  other  tribes 
were  persuaded  to  learn  it  whenever  possible.  Thus  some  of  its 
words  came  to  be  substituted  for  those  originally  familiar  to  the 
speakers. 

The  Chiquito  and  the  Yurucare  are  the  only  tongues  of  the  eight 
given  of  which  I  have  found  satisfactorj'  grammatical  notices  ;  and 
that  of  the  latter  is  still  unpublished  (see  ante,  p.  297). 


LINGUISTIC   APPENDIX. 


361 


LANGUAGES  OF  THE  CHACO  TRIBES. 


Guaycuru. 

Guaycuru. 

Toba. 

Payagua. 

Man, 

conailaigo, 

sellarnicke, 

iale,  yraic,  D., 

pichires. 

Woman, 

ivuavo, 

alucke, 

a!6, 

elommi. 

Sun, 

ali  jega, 

nalacke, 

la  la, 

ij  cabala. 

Moon, 

aipainahi, 

auriucke, 

karoic, 

apajsa. 

Fire, 

noolai, 

nodecke, 

nodec,  anorec,  D. 

Water, 

niogo, 

estract, 

netrat, 

guayaque. 

Head, 

lacaicke, 

lakaic,  caracaic,  D., 

yamagra. 

Eye, 

cogaicoguo, 

laicte, 

hait£,  yacte,  D., 

yatiqui. 

Ear, 

conapajoti, 

teld, 

tela, 

yaiguala. 

Mouth, 

coniola, 

halap,  ayap,  D. 

Nose, 

codeimie, 

lunuke, 

lomi,  imic,  D., 

iyocque. 

Tongue, 

codocaiti, 

lacharat. 

Tooth, 

codoai, 

hu<§, 

lu<§,  yohua,  D. 

Hand, 

cobahaga, 

yagata, 

pokena, 

inagchiac. 

Foot, 

codohoua, 

lapia, 

lapid,  ypia,  D., 

ybagro. 

House, 

dimi, 

lumackd, 

nollic,  nnoic,  D., 

yaggo. 

i, 

nathedac, 

2, 

cacayni  or  nivoco. 

3, 

cacaynilia. 

4, 

nalotapegat. 

5.     , 

nivoca-cacaynilia. 

) 

The  three  dialects  of  the  Guaycuru  stock  above  given  show  con- 
siderable diversity.  The  first  is  from  Castelnau,  the  second  from 
Fontana,  the  third  (Toba)  from  Carranza  and  de  Angelis.  The 
Payagua  is  also  from  Fontana  (Revista  de  la  Soc.  Geog.  Argentina, 
1887,  p.  352,  sq.). 

All  the  Chaco  tribes  are  singularly  defective  in  numeration. 
Pelleschi  says  that  intelligent  chiefs  among  them  cannot  count  the 
fingers  of  one  hand.  Above  the  two  numerals  are  generally  com- 
pound words  and  have  not  fixed  forms. 


362 


THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 


Man, 

pete, 

nitemoi, 

Woman, 

uacal, 

quisle, 

Sun, 

yny, 

o!6, 

Moon, 

alit, 

copi, 

Fire, 

ycud, 

nie, 

Water, 

to,  fo, 

ma, 

Head, 

toc6, 

niscone, 

Eye, 

zu,  chu, 

toqud, 

Ear, 

cusancp, 

maslup, 

Mouth, 

ca, 

yep, 

Nose, 

nus, 

limic, 

Tongue, 

lequy, 

lequip. 

Tooth, 

llu, 

lupe. 

Hand, 

ys, 

isip, 

Foot, 

ellu, 

ape, 

House, 

uya,  enu, 

guane, 

I, 

alapea, 

agit, 

2, 

tamop, 

uke, 

3, 

tamlip, 

nipetuei, 

4, 

locuep, 

yepkatalet, 

5, 

SiCO  TRIBES.—  (Continued.') 

Chiinupi. 

Mataco. 

nitepac, 

j  paire". 
{  inoon,  D. 

jiole", 

chiegua. 

o!6, 

iguala. 

cocpi, 

huela. 

nic", 

etog. 

mad, 

(  elot. 
(  guag,  D. 

niscan, 

litec,  D. 

tacqui, 

teloy. 

mas  leguep, 

kiotei. 

notagni,  D. 

niji  veppe, 

nognes. 

ysivep, 

nog-guez. 

huopep, 

kalay'. 

huane, 

j  guoslo. 
(  lubuque,  D. 

j  hotequachi. 

[  efagla,  D. 

(  hotequoasi. 

(  tacuas,  D. 

. 

j  lach  tdi  qua  jel. 

1 

(  tacuya,  D. 

j  tdi-qua  less-hichi. 

(  nocuepogec,  D. 

ype  befagla,  D. 

The  near  relationship  of  the  L,ule,  Vilela  and  Chunupi  appears 
clear  from  the  above  comparison.  The  Chunupi  words  are  taken 
from  Fontana  (ubi  sttprd) ,  the  Vilela  from  the  vocabulary  of  Gilii's 
Storia  Americana,  and  the  L,ule  from  Machoni's  Grammar. 

The  Mataco  is  also  from  Fontana,  and  represents  the  dialect  as 
spoken  to-day.  The  words  marked  D.  are  from  the  D'Orbigny 
MSS. 


LINGUISTIC   APPENDIX. 


363 


LANGUAGES  OF  THE  LA  PLATA  BASIN  AND  PAMPAS. 


Guachi. 

Guato. 

Caraja. 

Araucanian, 

Man, 

chacup, 

matai, 

abou, 

che. 

Woman, 

outie', 

mouhaja, 

awkeu, 

domo. 

Sun, 

6-es, 

nouveai, 

tisu, 

antu. 

Moon, 

o-alete, 

upina, 

aadou,  endo, 

cuyen. 

Fire, 

mata, 

eastou, 

cuthal. 

Water, 

euak, 

maguen, 

be-ai, 

CO. 

Head, 

iotapa, 

dokeu, 

woara, 

Ion  co. 

Eye, 

iataya, 

marei, 

waa-rouwai, 

ge. 

Ear, 

irtanme'te', 

mavi, 

wana-outai, 

pilun. 

Mouth, 

iape, 

dijio, 

wa-a-rou, 

uun. 

Nose, 

ia-note, 

taga, 

wa-day-asan, 

yu. 

Tongue, 

iteche, 

chagi, 

\va-cla-rato, 

que-uun. 

Tooth, 

iava, 

maqua, 

wa-a-djon, 

voro. 

Hand, 

iolai-mason, 

ida, 

wa-debo, 

cuu. 

Foot, 

iacalep, 

apoo, 

wa-a-wa, 

namun. 

House, 

poecha, 

mucu, 

aeto, 

ruca. 

i, 

tamak, 

tchenai, 

wadewo, 

quifie. 

2, 

eu-echo, 

du-uni, 

wadebo-thoa, 

epu. 

3, 

eu-echo-kailau, 

tchum, 

wadeboa-heodo, 

cula. 

4, 

eu-echo-way, 

dekai, 

wadebo-jeodo, 

meli. 

5, 

localau, 

toera, 

wade  wa-j  ouclay  , 

quechu. 

The  vocabularies  of  the  Guachis,  Guatos  and  Carajas  are  from 
the  collections  of  Castelnau  {Expedition,  Tome  V.,  Appendix); 
that  of  the  Araucanian  from  Febres"  Diccionario. 

The  Guachis  are  classed  as  belonging  to  the  Guaranis  (Tupi 
stock),  and  by  tradition  came  from  the  west  (see  ant£,  p.  233).  A 
comparison  with  the  Samucu  vocabulary  (page  359)  seems  to  me 
to  suggest  several  resemblances  which  would  be  worth  further 
study  on  more  extended  material. 

The  Guatos  may  be  a  mixed  offshoot  of  the  Tapuya  stock,  as  has 
been  suggested  (ant£,  p.  318).  Of  the  Caraja,  we  must  await  the 
publication  of  the  abundant  material  collected  by  Dr.  Paul  Ehren- 
reich. 


3^4 


THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 


PATAGONIAN  AND  FUEGIAN  STOCKS. 


Tsoneca,  i. 

Tsoneca,  2. 

Yahgan. 

Alikuluf. 

Man, 

nuken, 

chonik, 

oha,  ub'n, 

ack'inish. 

Woman. 

nacuna, 

karken, 

kepa,  shepush 

,  ack'hanash. 

Sun, 

chuina, 

gengenko, 

lum, 

lum. 

Moon, 

chuina, 

showan, 

han'nuka, 

cuunequa. 

Fire, 

ma-ja, 

yaik, 

pushaky, 

tStal. 

Water, 

karra, 

ley, 

shamea, 

chanash. 

Head, 

guil. 

kittar, 

lukabe, 

of  chocka. 

Eye, 

gottel, 

g-otl, 

delta, 

telkh. 

Ear, 

shene, 

shaa, 

ufkhea, 

teldil. 

Mouth, 

shahan, 

yeak, 

uffeare. 

Nose, 

oo, 

tchal,  or, 

cushush, 

nohl. 

Tongue, 

del, 

tal, 

lun, 

luckin. 

Teeth, 

curr, 

oer,  orre, 

tu'un, 

cauwash. 

Hand, 

ore,  fan, 

tsicc'r, 

J  josch, 

>-  yuccaba. 

(  marpo, 

) 

Foot, 

keal,            j 

shankence, 
alj, 

[•  c5eea\ 

cutliculcul. 

Home, 

cocha, 

kou, 

uk  kral, 

hut. 

i, 

cheuquen, 

chuche, 

ocoale, 

tow  quid  ow. 

2, 

xeukay, 

houke, 

combabe, 

telkeow. 

3, 

keash,        \ 

aa's, 
kaash, 

[•  muttta, 

cup'eb. 

4, 

kekaguy,  •] 

carge, 
kague, 

j-carga, 

inadaba. 

5, 

keytzum, 

ktsin, 

cup'aspa. 

The  vocabularies  of  the  Tsoneca,  Tehuelhet  or  Patagonian  differ 
considerably  in  the  various  writers.  No.  i  is  from  Von  Martins, 
completed  from  D'Orbigny's  lists.  No.  2  is  based  on  Lt.  Muster's 
examples,  supplemented  from  the  vocabularies  in  Ramon  L,ista's 
Exploraciones . 

The  Yahgan  and  Alikuluf  pass  for  independent  stocks.  Yet  in 
a  number  of  words  they  resemble  each  other,  and  in  a  few,  for  ex- 
ample, those  for  "  eye,"  "  woman,"  "  moon,"  "  man,"  there  seems 
more  than  a  chance  similarity. 


ADDITIONS  AND  CORRECTIONS. 


P.  24.  AURIFEROUS  GRAVELS  OF  CALIFORNIA.  The  principal 
reference  is  J.  D.  Whitney,  The  Auriferous  Gravels  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada  of  California,  pp.  258-288  (Cambridge,  Mass.,  1879).  Pro- 
fessor Whitney  believes  that  the  evidence  is  sufficient  to  attribute 
the  mortars,  pestles,  beads,  etc.,  found  in  the  auriferous  gravels  to 
late  pliocene  man.  But  Dr.  Joseph  Leidy  describes  equine  skulls, 
molars,  incisors,  etc.,  found  in  these  gravels,  thirty-five  to  forty 
feet  below  the  surface,  "  not  differing  in  any  respect  from  those 
of  the  modern  horse,"  and  "  unchanged  in  texture  "  (see  ibid.,  p. 
257).  Dr.  Leidy  informs  me  personally  that  for  such  reasons  he 
gravely  doubts  the  antiquity  of  the  formation,  and  distrusts  the 
great  age  of  the  human  relics  it  contains. 

P.  27.  PALEOLITHIC  IMPLEMENTS.  Reports  of  the  discovery  of 
very  large  numbers  of  supposed  palaeolithic  implements  in  various 
parts  of  the  United  States  have  been  collected  and  published  by 
Mr.  Thomas  Wilson  in  the  Report  of  the  U.  S.  National  Museum, 
1887-88,  pp.  677-702.  These  implements,  however,  are  called 
palaeolithic  from  their  form  and  workmanship  only,  and  not  from 
the  stratigraphic  relations  in  which  they  were  found.  As  palaeo- 
lithic forms  often  survived  in  the  riper  culture  of  the  neolithic  age, 
the  only  positive  proof  of  their  older  origin  must  be  that  they  are 
found  in  undisturbed  relation  to  older  strata. 

P.  33.  REMAINS  OF  MAN  IN  THE  EQUUS  BEDS.  What  Amer- 
ican geologists  call  the  Equus  Beds  are  those  which  yield  in  abun- 
dance the  bones  of  various  species  of  fossil  horse,  as  E.  major,  oc- 
cidentalis,  excelsus,  barcencei,  fratemus,  crenidens,  etc.,  most  of 
which  have  been  determined  by  Dr.  Joseph  Leidy  and  Prof.  E.  D. 
Cope.  The  principal  localities  of  these  beds  are:  i.  The  Oregon 
Desert ;  2.  The  country  of  the  Nueces,  in  southwestern  Texas  ; 
and  3.  The  valley  of  Mexico.  The  horizon  to  which  these  beds 
should  be  referred  was  considered  by  Prof.  King  to  be  the  Upper 

(365) 


366  THE  AMERICAN   RACE. 

Pliocene  ;  but  by  Prof.  G.  K.  Gilbert,  Dr.  Joseph  Leidy,  and  I 
think,  by  Prof.  Cope,  it  is  rather  held  to  be  pleistocene  or  early 
quaternary,  probably  as  old  as  the  great  glacial  phenomena  of  the 
Continent.  According  to  Cope  and  Gilbert,  rude  stone  implements 
have  undoubtedly  been  found  in  place  in  the  Equus  beds  of  Ne- 
vada, California  and  Southwestern  Texas.  See  the  American 
Naturalist,  1889,  p.  165  ;  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sciences,  Phila.,  1883, 
p.  134,  sq. 

Pp.  106,  108.  KWAKIUTI,  AND  NooKTA  STOCKS.  After  the 
pages  referred  to  had  been  printed,  I  received,  through  the  kind- 
ness of  Mr.  Horatio  Hale,  advance  sheets  of  the  Sixth  Annual  Re- 
port of  the  Committee  of  the  British  Association  on  the  tribes  of 
the  Northwest  Coast,  prepared  by  Dr.  Franz  Boas,  with  an  intro- 
duction by  Mr.  Hale,  and  including  eighteen  vocabularies.  Dr. 
Boas'  researches  furnish  clear  evidence  of  a  connection  between 
the  Kwakiutl  and  the  Nootka  tongues,  and  there  is  little  doubt  that 
they  are  distantly  related .  An  instructive  article  on  the  physical 
characteristics  of  the  Indians  of  the  North  Pacific  coast  is  contrib- 
uted by  Dr.  Boas  to  the  American  Anthropologist  for  January, 
1891.  His  conclusion  is  :  "  Each  tribe  appears  composed  of  many 
types,  but  in  each  we  find  a  marked  prevalence  of  a  certain  type." 

P.  123.  SUPPOSED  CONNECTION  OF  SONORAN  LANGUAGES  WITH 
THE  MAYA  STOCK.  In  his  Etudes  Azteques,  published  in  the 
Museon,  1890,  p.  506,  M.  W.  Baligny  endeavors  to  show  a  connec- 
tion between  the  vocabularies  of  Sonoran  languages  and  the  Maya 
dialects.  His  strong  points  are  some  of  the  numerals  and  the  per- 
sonal pronouns  of  the  first  and  second  person.  I  have  elsewhere 
given  good  reasons  for  not  depending  on  these  pronominal  anal- 
ogies in  American  languages  (see  Essays  of  an  Americanist,  p. 
396) .  And  as  to  the  numerals,  ' '  dont  la  ressemblance  est  e*vidente  ' ' 
(according  to  him),  when  the  Sonoran  tongues  disagree  with  the 
Nahuatl,  they  have  almost  always  clearly  borrowed  from  the  Yuma 
stem,  as  in  "two,"  guoca,  kuak  (see  Vocabs.,  ante,  pp.  335,  336). 

P.  163.  LANGUAGE  OF  THE  RAMAS.  Since  my  negative  obser- 
vations about  the  Ramas  were  in  type,  I  have  received  a  short  vo- 
cabulary of  their  language  from  the  Rev.  W.  Siebarger,  Moravian 
missionary  on  the  Musquito  coast.  The  orthography  is  German. 


ADDITIONS  AND   CORRECTIONS.  367 

Rama.  Rama. 

Man,  nikikna,  Tongue,  kup. 

Woman,  kuma,  Tooth,  siik. 

Sun,  nunik,  Hand,  kuik. 

Moon,  tukan,  Foot,  kaat. 

Fire,  abung,  House,  knu. 

Water,  sii,  i,  saiming. 

Head,  kiing,  2,  puk  sak. 

Eye,  up,  3,  pang  sak. 

Ear,  kuka,  4,  kun  kun  beiso. 

Mouth,  kaka,  5,  kwik  astar. 

Nose,  talk. 

My  informant  writes  me  that  the  Ramas  are  about  250  in  num- 
ber, and  are  all  Christians  and  able  to  speak  and  write  English,  ex- 
cept a  few  very  old  persons.  Their  language  will  probably  be 
extinct  in  a  few  years.  They  are  confined  to  their  island  in  Blue- 
fields  L/agoon.  It  is  particularly  interesting,  therefore,  to  fix  their 
affinities  before  the  opportunity  passes.  From  the  above  vocabu- 
lary I  think  there  is  little  doubt  but  that  they  are  a  branch  of  the 
Changuina  or  Dorasque  stock,  described  pp.  174,  175.  The  follow- 
ing words  attest  this,  the  Changuina  forms  being  from  A.  L.  Pi- 
nart's  Vocabulario  Castellano-Dorasqtie,  Dialectos  C/tumulu,  Gua- 
laca y  Clianguine,  (Paris,  1890)  : 

Rama.  Ckanguina. 

Sun,  riunik,  kelik  u. 

Fire,  abung,  kebug-al  (fire-brand). 

Watet\  sii,  si. 

Head,  kiing,  kitt-unuma. 

Ear,  kuka,  kuga. 

Mouth>  kaka,  kaga. 

Nose,  taik,  flakai. 

Tongue,  kup,  kuba. 

Tooth,  siik,  su. 

Hand,  kuik,  kulak 

House,  knu,  ku. 

The  numerals  For  "  two  "  and  "  three, "  puk  sak,  pang  Sak,  are 
doubtless  the  Cuna  pocua,  pagua.  The  Ramas,  therefore,  belong 
to  the  Isthmiafc  tribes,  and  formed  the  vanguard  of  the  South 


368  THE  AMERICAN   RACE. 

American  immigration  into  North  America.  What  time  they 
moved  northward  and  possessed  themselves  of  their  small  island  is 
unknown,  but  it  was  probably  after  the  conquest.  Mr.  Sie- 
barger  writes  me  :  "  They  were  always  kept  under,  even  ill-treated, 
by  the  Musquito  Indians,  and  are  still  very  submissive  and  teach- 
able." 

The  following  errata  should  be  noted  : 

P.  69,  line  3  ;  for  Nehaunies  read  Nahaunies. 

Pp.  89,  95,  98  and  101,  the  numbers  of  the  sections  should  read 
7,  8,  9,  10,  instead  of  5,  6,  7,  8. 

P.  169,  line  17,  for  maternal  read  paternal. 

P.  197,  for  Morropas  read  Malabas. 

P.  251,  line  n,  for  Wapiana  read  Woyawoi. 


I.  INDEX  OF  AUTHORS. 


Abbott,  C.  C.,  27,  77. 
Acosta,  J.,  172,  178,  187,  191. 
Acosta,  Jos.,  221. 
Adair,  J.,  18. 
Adelung,  J.  C.,  165,  312. 
Adam,  L,.,  56,  90,  146,   163,  169, 
170,  184,  247,  257,  274,  296,  311, 

329,  341,  350,  352,  354- 
Albis,  M.   I.,   199,  200,  254,  274, 

275,  343- 

Alcedo,  A.,  182,  221. 
Ameghino,  F.,  28. 
Amich,  J.,  243,  288,  291. 
Andre",  E.,  197,  208,  280,  283. 
Angelis,  P.  de,  361. 
Angrand,  I,.,  304. 
Anthony,  A.  S.,  79. 
Araoz,  J.,  314. 
Araujo,  J.,  288. 
Armentia,  N.,  358. 
Aughey,  Prof.  26. 

Babbitt,  F.,  25. 

Baegert,  J.,  112.  , 

Balbi,  A.,  165. 

Baligny,  W.,  366. 

Bancroft,  H.  H.,  138. 

Bandelier,  A.  F.,  45,  72,  116, 141. 

Barbara,  F.,  322. 

Barber,  E.  A.,  114. 

Barcena,  A.  de,  170,  311,  320,  321. 


Barcena,  M.,  27. 
24 


Barnard,  J.  G.,  143. 

Barreda,  P.,  144. 

Bartlett,  J.  R.,  Ilr. 

Bartram,  W.,  87. 

Bastian,  A.,  206,  221,  225,  348. 

Bates,  H.  W.,  35. 

Beaumont,  P.  138. 

Berendt,  C.  H.,  144, 149,  151, 152, 

186,  340-2. 

Beristain  y  Souza,  147. 
Bertonio,  I/.,  217,  218. 
Bliss,  J.  P.,  148. 
Boas,  F.,  47,  60,  104,  106,  366. 
Bollaert,  W.,  195,  198,  202,  206, 

290. 

Bourke,  J.  G.,  71,  115,  123,  125. 
Brackett,  A.  G.,  120. 
Branner,  J.  C.,  241. 
Bransford,  J.  F.,  164. 
Brasseur  de  Bourbourg,  156, 158. 
Brinton,  D.  G.,  17,  24,  38,  45,  78, 

79,  88,  91,  135,   158,   161,   166, 

241,  256. 

Briihl,  G.,  45,  132,  211. 
Buckley,  C.,  209. 
Buelna,  E.,  127. 
Burmeister,  28,  321. 
Buschmann,  J.  C.  E.,  68, 116,  119, 

128,  130,  337. 

Carr,  I,.,  39,  75,  211. 


Carranza,  A.  J.,  309,  361. 
(369) 


370 


THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 


Carranza,  D.,  147. 

Carrera,  F.,  224,  348. 

Carver,  J.,  99. 

Cassani,   J.,    182,   267,  268,  270, 

275- 
Castelnau,  F.,  244,  245,  260,  287, 

310,  318. 

Castillo  y  Orozco,  E.,  192. 
Catlin,  G.,  98. 
Caledon,  R.,  183. 
Chaffanjon,  J.,  252,  264,  265,  266, 

270,  272. 

Chandless,  W.,  290-3. 
Chargncey,  H.  de,  136. 
Chome",  P.,  301,  318. 
Clark,  W.  P.,  102,   121,  122. 
Codazzi,  V.,  199,  264,  265. 
Coleti,  G.,  180,  181,  202,  232,  269, 

287,  323. 

Colini,  G.  A.,  283. 
Collinson,  J.,  163. 
Cope,  E.  D.,  366. 
Corbusier,  W.  H.,  49,  no. 
Cordova,  J.,  339. 
Coudreau,  M.,  257,  264,  266. 
Cresson,  H.  P.,  25. 
Crevaux,  J.,    253,  257,   264,  272, 

274,  278,  309. 
Croll,  J.,  28,  30. 
Cueva,  P.  la,  297. 

Dall,  W.  H.,  20,  61,  65,  66. 
Dana,  J.  D.,  22,  23. 
Darapsky,  L.,  227,  322,  329. 
Darwin,  C.,  28,  47. 
Dawson,  G.  M.,  22,  71,  106. 
Deniker,  Dr.,  332. 
D'Etre",  G.,  170. 
Dobrizhoffer,  M.,  308. 
D'Orbigny,  A.  de,  40,    166,  167 


220,  227,  243,  244,  245,  290,  297, 
302,  309,  316,  328,  359,  364. 

Dorsey,  J.  O.,  98. 

Douay,  L,.,  194. 

Dunbar,  J.  B.,  95,  97. 

Eastman,  Mary,  100. 

Eder,  F.  X.,  247. 

Ehrenreich,    P.,    237,    239,    253, 

260,  261,  317,  328,  349. 
Enciso,  M.  F.,  178. 
Ercilla,  A.  de,  327. 
Ernst,  A.,  176,  178,  179,  255,  343. 
Espada,  215. 
Ewbank,  102,  in. 

Faulkner,  T.,  327. 
Faraud,  F.,  70. 
Fernandez,  B.,  151. 
Fernandez,  J.  P.,  296,  305,  317. 
Fernandez,  L.,  164. 
Ferragut,  P.,  311. 
Figueredo,  J.,  205. 
Fletcher,  Alice,  49. 
Fonseca,  J.  S.,  311. 
Fontana,  L.  J.,  308,  315. 
Forbes,  D.,  217,  218,  220. 
Forstemann,  E.,  157. 
Fritsch,  H.  40. 

Gabelentz,  von,  F.,  259. 

Gagern,  C.  de,  55. 

Gait,  Iv.  F.,  290. 

Garcia,  B.,  93. 

Garcia,  G.,  142,  145- 

Gatschet,  A.  S.,  68,  90,  113. 

Geikie,  J.,  29. 

Gibbs,  G.,  121. 

Gilbert,  G.  K.,  26,  32. 

Gilii,  F.  S.,  250,  263-278,  311. 

Gilnian,  H.,  37. 


INDEX   OF  AUTHORS. 


371 


Gonzaga,  P.,  150. 

Grasserie,  R.  de  la,  90,  289,  290, 

356. 

Greiffenstein,  C.,  175,  243. 
Grossman,  F.  E.,  124. 
Gumilla,  J.,  267,  270,  272. 
Gutierrez,  P\,  288. 

Habenicht,  H.,  29. 

Hale,  H.,  41,  79,  83,  84,  98,  107. 

Hamy,  Dr.,  281,  284. 

Harisse,  H.,   151. 

Hartmann,  J.,  267. 

Hartt,  C.  P.,  232. 

Havestadt,  B.,  325. 

Hayden,  T.,  97. 

Heath,  E.,  290,  299,  302,  304. 

Henderson,  A.,  162. 

Henry,  V.,  296. 

Hensel,  R.,  260. 

Hensell,  Dr.,  39. 

Hernandez,  M.,  187. 

Herndon,  Lt.,  40,  291. 

Herrera,  A.,  40,  140,  143, 145,  148, 

154,  172, 183,  191,  194,  196. 
Hervas,    L.,  165,    194,    195,  222, 

226,  243, 278-280,  287, 296,  306, 

311,  314,  317,  340. 
Heuzey,  L.,  201. 
Hoernes,  R.,  28. 
Hoffman,  \V.  J.,  62. 
Holm,  G.,  6 1,  63. 
Holmes,  W.  H.,  25,  154,  186. 
Humboldt,  A.  von,  43,   165,  263, 

270,  272. 

Humboldt,  W.  von,  56,  166. 
Hyades,  Dr.,  329. 

Im  Thurn,  E.  P.,  35,  245-48.  251, 

272. 
Icazbalceta,  J.  G.,  151. 


Juarros,  D.,  152. 
Jukes-Browne,  A.  J.,  31. 

Kingsborough,  Lord,  18. 
Kelly,  J.  W.,  65. 
Kollmann,  J.,  35,  36. 
Krause,  A.,  106. 

Labre",  Col.,  294,  299. 

Laet,  de,  J.,  150,  299. 

Landa,  D.,  156. 

Lares,  J.  I.,  178,  179,  180. 

Latham,  R.  G.,  278. 

Leconte,  J.  LM  104. 

Lengerke,  H.,  252. 

Leon,  C.  de,  202,  206,  207,  210. 

Leon,  N.,  137,  138,  338,  339. 

Level,  M.,  272. 

Lista,  R.,  328,  364. 

Lovisato,  D.,  330,331. 

Lozano,  P.,  233,  307,  310,  312, 

3M-  317. 

Ludewig,  H.,  286,  297. 
Lund,  Dr.,  237. 

MacCauley,  C.,  89. 
McGee,  W.  J.,  26,  34. 
Machoni,  A.,  311. 
Matniani,  L.  V.,  259,  349. 
Mansilla,  L.,  323. 
Marcano,  G.,  180. 
Marcoy,  P.,  233,  245. 
Markham,   C.  G.,  65,    204,   205, 

206,    207,    215,   216,   217,    222, 

226,  286. 
Martin,  C.,  327. 
Martial,  L.  P.,  329. 
Martius,  C.  P.,  von,  46,  168,  169, 

230,    232,    240,   246,    250,    257, 

258,    262,    288,   289,    293,   310, 

314,  3i6,  318,  328. 


372 


THE  AMERICAN   RACE. 


Matthews,  W.,  38,  71,  73,  247. 
Medina,  J.  T.,  324,  325. 
Meigs,  J.  A.,  36,  37,  82. 
Mendieta,  G.,  150. 
Michelena  y  Rojas,  F.,  255,  266, 

271,  272. 
Middendorf,  Dr.,  204,  208,  211, 

215. 

Molina,  A.,  130. 
Moore,  T.  H.,  227. 
Morgan,  L.  H.,  45,  83,  99,  149. 
Mortillet,  G.  de,  19,  27,  30. 
Morton,  S.  G.,  36. 
Mosquera,  Gen.,  195,  200. 
Moure,  A.,  42,  49. 
Moussy,  M.,  323. 
Miiller,    Fr.,  56,  146,    184,    215, 

339.  346,  348. 
Miiller,  H.,  237. 
Muratori,  P.,  296. 
Murdoch,  J.,  60. 
Musters,  Lt.,  324,  328,  364. 

Natterer,  J.,  170,  250,  310. 
Navarette,  178. 
Navas,  F.,  150. 
Nehring,  Dr.,  212. 
Noguera,  V.,  149,  342. 

Ojeda,  A.  de,  178. 

Ordinaire,  O.,  242,  286,  289. 

Ore,  G.,  222,  224. 

Orozco  y  Berra,  69,  93,   94,    130, 

148,  152. 

Osculati,  280,  281. 
Oviedo  y  Bafios,  177. 
Oviedo,  145. 

Pajeken,  C.  A.,  in,  126. 
Parker,  O.  J.,  164. 
Parras,  P.,  315. 


Payne,  F.  F.,  61. 

Pector,  D.,  149. 

Pelleschi,  G.,  313. 

Peralta,  M.  de,  146. 

Perez,  F.,  175,  193,  199,  268,  269, 

276. 

Perez,  J.T.,  183. 
Petitot,  E.,  70,  73. 
Petroff,  I.,  61,  66,  67. 
Pfizmaier,  A.,  64,  65,  66. 
Philippi,  R.  A.,  227. 
Piedrahita,  191. 
Pimentel,  F.,  93,  94,  140. 
Pinart,  A.,  66,  115,  127,  174,  185, 

253,  254,  343- 
Platzmann,  J.,  325. 
Ploix,  C.,   19. 
Posado-Arango,  Dr.,  193. 
Poppig,  E.,  231,    286,    288,    326, 

327- 

Powell,  J.  W.,45,  83. 
Powers,  S.,  73. 
Prestwich,  J.,  22. 

Quatrefages,  de,  19,  32. 
Quesada,  V.  G.,  319. 
Quetelet,  75. 
Quevede,  A.  L,.,  312. 

Ragueneau,  P.,  49. 
Raimondi,  Prof.,  284,  290. 
Rev,  P.  M.,  237-239. 
Ribas,  P.,  119,  125-127. 
Ribera,  J.  de,  195. 
Riccardi,  P. ,  324. 
Rink,  H.,  30,  60. 
Rodrigues,  J.  B.,  252-3. 
Rohde,  R.,  310,  319. 
Rojas,  A.,  177,  267. 
Roldan,  P.,  151. 


INDEX  OF  AUTHORS. 


373 


Rosny,  I,,  de,  157. 
Rosse,  I.  C.,  21. 

Saenz,  N.,  276,  277. 

Sahagun,  B.,  128,   132,  135,  136, 

139,  142,  154. 
Sanborn,  J.  W.,  48. 
San-Roman,  J.,  227,  228. 
Schellhas,  Dr.,  157. 
Scherzer,  J.,  153. 
Schlosser,  Max,  50. 
Schomburgk,  R.   F.,  246,  254. 
Schweinitz,  de,  64. 
Seitz,  J.,  331. 
Seler,  E.,  157,  196,   198. 
Simpson,  A.,  274,  283. 
Spencer,  J.  W.,  30. 
Spix,  Von,  262. 
Spruce,  R.,  169,  226,  250,  291. 
Squier,  E.  G.,  149,  152,  159,  160, 

220,  225,  341. 
Steinen,  K.  von  den,  169,  205, 

241,  245,  258,    259,    260,   350, 

35i- 

Steinthal,  H.,  217. 
Stoll,  O.,  152,  340. 
Strebel,  H.,  140. 
Stubel,  Dr.,  206. 
Suarez,  F.  G.,  201. 

Tarayre,  E.  G.,  136,  336. 

Tauste,  F.,  252. 

Techo,  N.,    230,   231,  307,   311, 

320,  326. 

Ten-Kate,  Dr.,  no,  113. 
Teza,  E.,  232,  281,  285,  302,  306. 
Thiel,  B.  A.,  164,  196,  197,  342. 
Thomas,  C.,  157. 
Tolmie,  C.,  106. 


Topinard,  P.,  39,  211. 

Toral,  P.,  150,  151. 

Torquemada,  126. 

Torres-Rubio,  205. 

Treuter,  P.,  326. 

Tschudi,  J.  J.  von,  51,  168,  170, 
203,  204,  205,  206,  212,  215,  222, 
224,  227,  238,  243,  320. 

Turner,  102,  in. 

Uhde,  A.,  93,  94. 
Uhle,  M.,  174,  184,  185. 
Uricoechea,  E.,  192. 

Valdivia,  209,  323. 

Vega,  G.  dela,  201,  202,  203,  204, 

221,  225,  227. 
Veigl,  292. 
Velasco,  J.  de,  207. 
Vergara  y  Vergara,  267. 
Villavicencio,  M.,  208,  281. 
Virchow,  R.,  36,  103,  121,  247, 

320. 
Vinson,  J.,  90. 

Wagner,  M.,  48. 

Waitz,  T.,  209,  233,  292,  300. 

Wallace,  A.  R.,  229,  278. 

Weddell,  300. 

Whipple,  Lt.,  102,  in. 

White,  R.  B.,  193. 

Wiener,  C.,  225. 

Wilcszynski,  H.,  197. 

Wilson,  J.  S.,  25. 

Winkler,  H.,  66. 

Wright,  G.  F.,  27,  29,  30,  31. 

Zegarra,  G.  P.,  215. 


II.  INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


Ababas,  235. 
Abipones,  308,  309,  315. 
Abnakis,  74,  80. 
Acaliands,  320. 
Acaxees,  127,  134. 
Accawai,  254.     &<?  Akavais, 

cowoios. 
Achaguas,  268. 
Achis,   158. 
Achomawi,  108. 
Achuales,  282. 
Acroas,  239. 
Adaize,  91. 
Agaces,  316. 
Agapicos,  282. 
Agriculture,  50 
Aguanos,  285. 
Aguanteas,  289. 
Aguarunas,  284. 
Aguatecas,  158. 
Aguilotes,  315. 
Ahomes,  134. 
Aht,  108. 
Aicores,  282. 
Aimores,  239. 
Airicos,  273. 
Alabonas,  285. 
Alaguilacs,  128. 
Alaska,  65,  71. 
Alazapas,  94. 
Aleutians,  65. 


Ac- 


Aleutian  Islands,  20. 
Algonkins,  44,  74-80. 
Alikulufs,  329,  331,  364. 
Allentiac  dialect,  323. 
Almaguerenos,  200. 
Amaguages,  273. 


Amaonos,  285. 
Amarapas,  249. 
Amarisanes,  264,  266. 
Amarizonas,  264. 
Amazon  stones,  234. 
Amazonas,  235. 
Amoruas,  268. 
Amusgos,  142. 
Anaboli,  276. 
Anaddakkas,  97. 
Anambes,  235. 
Anaptomorphus,  the,  29. 
Ancon,  210. 
Andaquis,  199,  343. 
Andastes,  81. 
Andoa,  279,  280. 
Andoas,  282. 
Angaguedas,  176. 
Angekoks,  63. 
Anguteris,  282. 
Anibalis,  273. 
Antipas,  284. 
Antires,  282. 
Antis,  242,  249. 
Aonik,  329,  331. 
(374) 


INDEX   OF   SUBJECTS. 


375 


Apaches,  69,  71,  73,  102,  109,  115, 
214. 

Apache-Mohaves,  no. 

Apache-Tontos,  no,  125. 

Apache- Yumas,  no. 

Apalais,  257. 

Apiacas,  235,  253. 

Apinages,  239. 

Apolistas,  303. 

Aponegicrens,  239. 

Aratines,  94. 

Arauca,  276. 

Araguaguas,  235. 

Araicus,  249,  293. 

Arapahoes,  80. 

Araros,  282. 

Araua  stock,  293,  358. 

Araucanians,  321,  sq.,  363. 

Araunas,  298,  299. 

Arawaks,  241,  sq.,  266,  267,  291, 

295,  349,  350. 
Arawak  sub-stock,  268. 
Araya,  peninsula,  272. 
Arbacos,   180. 
Ardas,  286. 

Arecunas,  254,  257,  264. 
Aricaguas,  179. 
Aricoris,  257. 
Ariguas,  264. 
Arikarees,  95. 
Ariquipas,  73. 
Arkansas,  100. 
Aroacos,  182-189,  345. 
Aruacas,  264,  273. 
Arubas,  253. 
Assinais,  97. 
Assinibonis,  98-100. 
Atabaca,  276. 

Atacamenos,  226,  227,  320,  348. 
Atenes,  298,  299. 


Athabascans,  68. 

Atkan  dialect,  66. 

Atlantis,  the,  18. 

Atnahs,  73. 

Atorai,  245,  249. 

Attakapas,  92. 

Atures,  264,  266. 

Aucanos,  322. 

Aucas,  303,  322. 

Avanes,  264,  268. 

Aviamos,  179. 

Ayacares,  282. 

Ayahucas,  215. 

Aymara  dialect,  217,  223. 

Aymaras,  210,  216,  sq.,  227,  303, 

348. 

Ayrica,  276. 
Ayulis,  284. 
Aztecs,  118,  sq.,  128,  sq.,  336. 

Bacorehuis,  127. 

Bailadores,  179. 

Bakairis,  253,  257,  351. 

Banivas,  249,  250,  268,  278,  350. 

Bannocks,  120. 

Barbacoas,  196-8,  347. 

Barbudos,  291. 

Bares,  250,  268,  356. 

Baures,  247,  249,  295,  305. 

Bayanos,  173. 

Beaver  Indians,  73. 

Beothuks,  67. 

Betoya  stock,  273,  344,  355. 

Bilcoola,  108. 

Biloxis,  99. 

Bintucuas,  189. 

Bisaniguas,  276. 

Black  Caribs,  162. 

Blackfeet,  42,  74,  79,  80. 

Blood  Indians,  79. 


376 


THE  AMERICAN   RACE. 


Bobonazos,  282. 

Bobures,   178. 

Bocobis,  315. 

Bohanes,  317. 

Bones,  sacred,  54. 

Boni-Ouyana,  257. 

Boroas,  326. 

Borisques,  187. 

Bororos,  235. 

Borucas,  189,  346. 

Botocudos,  237-239,  260,  261. 

Brazilian  tribes,  46. 

Bribris,  189. 

Bruncas,  189. 

Bugabaes,  187. 

Bulbuls,  162. 

Burial  rites,  54. 

Cabacabas,  268. 
Cabecars,  189. 
Cabiunes,  264. 
Cabres,  268. 
Cacalotes,  94. 
Cacana,   311-313,  320. 
Cacas,  320. 
Cacchararys,  294. 
Caddoes,  91,  95. 
Cadioe"os,  310,  315. 
Cafuanas,  268. 
Cahitas,  125,  134. 
Cahuaches,  282,  285. 
Cahuapanas,  285. 
Cahuillos,  133. 
Caimanes,  178. 
Cakchiquels,  43,  153,  158. 
Calaveras  skull,  24,  33,  365. 
Calchaquis,  227,  319,  sq. 
California  gravels,  23,  33,  365, 
Callisecas,  291. 
Camacans,  239. 


Camaguras,  235. 
Cambevas,  235. 
Cambocas,  235. 
Games,  262. 
Campa,  279. 
Campas,  242,  243,  249. 
Canaguaes,  179. 
Canamirim,  249. 
Canamarys,  290. 
Canapeis,  190. 
Canaris,  201. 
Canas,  215,  221. 
Canasgordas,  176. 
Canawarys,  290,  291. 
Canchis,  221. 
Canelos,  208. 
Canichanas,  301,  360. 
Canisianas,  301. 
Cannibals,  256. 
Capesacos.  307. 
Capochos,  240. 
Caquetios,  177. 
Caracaras,  307. 
Caracatas,  235. 
Carahos,  239. 
Carai,  230. 
Carajahis,  262. 
Carajas,  260,  261,  363. 
Caramantas,  176. 
Carancas,  221. 
Carankaways,  92. 
Carare,  252,  353. 
Caras,  207. 
Carataimas,  264. 
Carchas,  162. 
Careras,  301. 
Cariayos,  249. 
Caribisis,  254,  257. 
Caribs,  52,  161,  174,  242,  251-8, 
264,  267,  272,  292,  295,  351-3. 


INDEX   OF  SUBJECTS. 


377 


Carib  sub-stocks,  264. 
Carijonas,  255,  258,  351. 
Cariniacos,  257. 
Cariris,  258. 
Carnijos,  241. 
Carrizos,  93. 
Carusanas,  268. 
Casamarcas,  215. 
Casas  grandes,  114,  123. 
Casliibos,  40,  290,  292. 
Catacoas,  226. 
Catajanos,  94. 
Catamarcas,  320. 
Catauxis,  294. 
Catawbas,  89. 
Catios,  193.  > 

Catoquina,  262,  357. 
Catoxa,  262. 
Cauiris,  268. 
Cauixanas,  249. 
Caumaris,  286.  > 

Cauqui  dialect,  216. 
Cauwachis,  286. 
Caveres,  264,  267,  268. 
Cavinas,  298. 
Cayapas,  197-8,  208,  347. 
Cayapos,  239. 
Cayovas,  235. 
Caypotorades,  301. 
Cayubabas,  302,  360. 
Cempoalla,  139. 
Cenis,  97. 
Ceris,  no,  113. 
Cerro  de  Sal,  243. 
Cessares,  327. 
Chachapuyas,  215. 
Chaco,  the,  307. 
Chaco  tribes,  49,  307,  sq. 
Chacobos,  294. 
Chagaragotos,  177. 


Chagres,  187. 
Chahta-Muskokis,  85-89. 
Chalivas,  175. 
Chamas,  180. 
Chaniicuros,  292. 
Chamis,  175,  176,  344. 
Champlain  period,  23. 
Chancas,  216. 
Chancos,  226. 
Chaneabals,  158,  340. 
Chanes,  317. 
Chaneses,  235. 
Changes,  226-227. 
Changuinas,  174,  343,  367. 
Chapacuras,  303. 
Chapanecs,  143,  145,  340. 
Chapos,  285. 
Charcas,  221. 
Charrua  stock,  317. 
Chatinos,  142. 
Chauques,  325,  327. 
Chavantes,  239. 
Chayavitas,  279,  284,  285. 
Chaymas,  252,  264. 
Chemehuevis,  133. 
Chepewyans,  68,  73. 
Cherembos,  284. 
Cherentes,  239. 
Cherokees,  81-85. 
Chetimachas,  91. 
Cheyennes,  80. 
Chiamus,  176. 
Chiapas,  143,  340. 
Chibchas,  181,  sq.,  345,  346. 
Chicamochas,  189. 
Chichas  Orejones,  310,  315. 
Chichimecs,  129. 
Chicomoztoc,  142. 
Chicriabas,  239. 
Chiglit  dialect,  60. 


378 


THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 


Chikasaws,  86-89. 

Chilan  Balam,  158. 

Chinantecos,  158,  340. 

Chimakuan,   108. 

Chimalapas,  144. 

Chimanis,  298. 

Chimarikan,  109. 

Chimbioas,  262. 

Chimilas,  182,  183,  189,  345. 

Chimmessyan,  108. 

Chimus,  225. 

Chinantecs,  144. 

Chinchasuyu  dialect,  205. 

Chinchas,  226. 

Chinooks,  106,  107,  108. 

Chipeways,  74,  80. 

Chiquitos,  244,  295,  305,  316. 

Chirapas,  284. 

Chiracahuas,  73. 

Chiricoas,  264,  270. 

Chirigotos,  177. 

Chiriqui,  129,  148,  186-187. 

Chiriquanos,  230,  235. 

Chirupas,  264,  268. 

Chitas,  182,  189. 

Choco  affinities,  274-275,  344. 

Chocos,  175,  343,  344. 

Choctaws,  85,  sq. 

Chogurus,  235. 

Choles,  158. 

Cholones,  243,  288. 

Chonos,  326. 

Chontals,  112,  146,  sq.,  342. 

Chontal-lencas,  149. 

Chontaquiro,  see  Chuntaquiros. 

Choonke,  328. 

Chorotegans,  145,  160. 

Choroyas,  276. 

Chord,  149. 

Choseosos,  243. 

Chualas,  244. 


Chuchonas,  142,  151. 
Chucunacos,  173. 
Chudavinos,  282. 
Chukchis,  64,  65. 
Chuniashan,  109. 
Chumulus,  175. 
Chunchas,  243,  288. 
Chunipi,  308,  362. 
Chuntaquiros,   245,  249,  350. 
Churitunas,  282. 
Churoya  stock,  276. 
Chururnatas,  310,  315. 
Citaraes,  176. 
Ciulipis,  313. 
Cliff  -houses,  115. 
Coahuiltecan,  93. 
Coaquilenes,  94. 
Cobeus,  240. 
Cocamas,  231-235. 
Cocamillas,  235,  289. 
Cochimis,  112,  113,335. 
Cochivuinas,  292. 
Coconucos,  194-196,  347. 
Cocopas,  113. 
Coco-Maricopas,  113. 
Coco  stem,  258. 
Cocos,  162. 
Cofanes,  276. 
Colanes,  226. 
Colimas,  190. 
Collas,  217,  221. 
Color,  39. 

Colorados,  196,  208,  226,  347. 
Columbian  gravels,  25. 

region,  172. 

stocks,  346. 
Comaba,  279. 
Comacoris,  282. 
Comanches,  101,  118,    120,   sq., 

133- 
Comecrudos,  94. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


379 


Comeyas,  113. 
Comoparis,  127. 
Conchucos,  196,  216. 
Conejoris,  282. 
Conestogas,  81,  83. 
Conibos,  289,  290,  291,  292. 
Coninos,   113. 
Conis,  298. 
Copan,  153,  155. 
Copatasas,  282. 
Copehan,  109. 
Corabecas,  303. 
Coras,  126,  134,  337 
Cores,  252. 

Coroados,  39,  259,  260. 
Coretus,  239. 
Coroinos,  301. 
Coronados,  285. 
Coromachos,  178. 
Coropos,  240. 
Correguages,  273,  355. 
Coshattas,  89. 
Costanoan,  109. 
Cothos,  187. 
Cotonames,  94. 
Cotoxos,  237,  262. 
Couvade,  the,  248,  256. 
Covarecas,  303. 
Coviscas,  151. 
Coybas,  173. 
Coyoteros,  73. 
Cranial  capacity,  39. 
Craniology,  36,  37. 
Creeks,  86,  sq. 
Crees,  74,  80. 
Crens,  236. 
Crichanas,  252. 
Cross,  the,  54. 
Crows,  98,  100. 
Cuaiqueres,  197. 


Cucciveros,  265. 

Cuchan,   109,  113. 

Cuchis,  298. 

Cuchiuaras,  235. 

Cuculados,  301. 

Cuenca,  201. 

Cuevas,  173. 

Cuicatecos,  142. 

Cuitlatecos,  128,  130,  134,   152. 

Cukras,  162. 

Culinos,  292,  362. 

Cumanachos,  239,  2401 

Cumanagoto,  252,  352. 

Cumanas,  252. 

Cunacunas,  173. 

Cunas,  173,  178,  343. 

Cuncos,  325,  326. 

Cuneguaras,  265. 

Cuniba,  279,  280. 

Cunipusanas,  250. 

Cunza  language,  227. 

Curarayes,  282. 

Curaves,  303. 

Curucanecas,  303 

Curuminacas,  303. 

Curyies,  282.  , 

Custimanos,  282. 

Cutinanas,  282. 

Dace,  240. 
Dakotas,  98,  sq. 
Darien  Indians,  173,     . 
Dauri,  245. 
Delawares,  80. 
Diagitas,  320. 
Dieguenos,  213. 
Dirians,  146. 
Divieches,  325. 
Dogs,  51,  2iz 
Dolegas,  187. 


THE  AMERICAN    RACE. 


Dorasques,  174,  175,  187,  343. 
Drachitas,  320. 
Duits,  189. 
Dures,  187. 

Echemins,  74. 

Ehnek,   109. 

Ele,  276. 

Enaguas,  265. 

Encabellados,  279,  281,  282. 

Enetes,  298. 

Enganos,  200. 

Enimagas,  316. 

Equaris,  298. 

Eries,  81. 

Eriteynes,  282. 

Escagueyes,  180. 

Eskimos,  38,  49,  59-67,  74,  238. 

Esmeraldas  river,  24. 

Esselenian,  109. 

Etenes,  225,  348. 

Eurafrica,  32. 

Eudeves  or  Heves,  134,  337. 

Five  Nations,  47,  81-85. 
Fornio,  241. 
Frascavinos,  282. 
Fuegians,  329,  sq. 
Fu-sang,  19. 

Gaes,  282. 

Galibis,  257. 

Gentile  system,  45. 

Ges,  239. 

Ginoris,  282. 

Givaros,  282. 

Glacial  Epoch,  21-23,  3°- 

Goajiros,  178,  249,  255,  346. 

Gohunes,  113. 

Goyotacos,  239,  240. 


Gran  Chimu,  224. 

Greenlanders,  61. 

Guachaguis,  233. 

Guaches,  303. 

Guachicliiles,  129. 

Guachis,  233,  309,  315,  363. 

Guacicas,  182,  189. 

Guagues,  266. 

Guaharibos,  252,  258. 

Guahibos,  270,  354. 

Guaicurus,  112,  113,  335. 

Guajiqueros,  160. 

Gualacas,  175. 

Gualachos,  233. 

Gualaquizas,  282. 

Gualeas,  208. 

Guamacas,  189. 

Guamas,  264,  269. 

Guamautnas,  129. 

Guambianos,   196. 

Guanas,  241,  243,  249,  350. 

Guaneros,  264. 

Guanucos,  194-6. 

Guaques,  254,  257,  351. 

Guaquis,  180. 

Guaranis,  230,  sq.,  363. 

Guaranocas,  301. 

Guaraques,  180. 

Guaraunos,  264,  271,  354. 

Guarayos,  40,  235,  294-5. 

Guaripenis,  268. 

Guariquenas,  250. 

Guarives,  265. 

Guarpes,  323,  325. 

Guatos,  318,  363. 

Guatusos,  163,  342. 

Guayanas,  235. 

Guaybas,  264,  270. 

Guaycos,  196. 

Guaycurus,  244, 303,  308, 315,  361. 


INDEX   OF   SUBJECTS. 


381 


Guaymas,  127,  134. 

Guaymies,   164. 

Guaymis,  173,   184,  189,  345. 

Guaypunavis,  268. 

Guayqueris,  258. 

Guayquiras,  264. 

Guayquiries,  272. 

Guayues,  276. 

Guazacas,  282. 

Guazapares,  127. 

"  Guck  "  nations,  169,  258,  363. 

Guenoas,  317. 

Guerens,  236. 

Guetares,  146. 

Guianaus,  254. 

Guinans,  249. 

Guipunavis,  268. 

Gujajaras,  235. 

Haidahs,  77,  106,  108. 
Hair,  39,  40. 
Haytians,  248,  249. 
Heiltsuks,  47,  108. 
Henienway  expedition,  123,  125. 
Hero-gods,  52,  53. 
Herisebocona,  306. 
Heves,  see  Eudeves. 
Hiawatha,  82. 
Hibitos,  288. 
Himuetacas,  282. 
Hitchitees,  89. 
Horse,  American,  50. 
Huachis,  303. 
Huacrachucus,  216. 
Huaihuenes,  327. 
Hualapais,  113. 
Huamachucus,  216. 
Huambisas,  284. 
Huancapampas,  216. 
Huancas,  216. 


Huancavillcas,  216. 
Huanucus,  216. 
Huasimoas,  282. 
Huastecs,  135,  140,  153,  sq. 
Huatanarys,  295. 
Huatusos,  163. 
Huaves,  159,  340. 
Huecos,  95. 
Huemuls,  331. 
Huiliches,  323,  325. 
Humuranos,  285. 
Hunos,  221. 
Hupas,  69,  73. 
Hurons,  48,  49,  81,  82,  85. 
Hypurinas,  294-5. 
Hyumas,  295. 

Ibanotnas,  282. 
Ibirayas,  301. 
Ice  Age,  21-23,  3°.  3L 
lebera,  279. 
Iguifios,   179. 
Illinois,  80. 
Imacos,  314,  316. 
Inaken,  327. 
Incas,  216. 
Incorporation,  56. 
Incuris,  282. 
Indama  dialect,  321. 
Inganos,  200. 
Inimacas,  314. 
Innies,  97. 
Innuit,  20,  59-66. 
Insumubies,  179. 
Intags,  208. 
Interglacial  period,  25. 
Intipuca,  152. 
lowas,  101. 
Ipuricotos,  252. 
Iquichanos,  216.     , 


382 


THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 


Trees,  331. 
Iroquois,  42,  81-85. 
Irriacos,  173. 
Iscuandies,  196-9. 
Isistines,  312,  316. 
Island  Caribs,  242,  257. 
Isuiamas,  298. 
Itenes,  303,  359. 
Ites,  303. 
Itonama,  305. 
Itremajoris,  282. 
Itucales,  287. 
Ixils,  159. 

Jabaanas,  249,  2501 
Jabue,  276. 
Jacundas,  235. 
Jade,  65. 
Jajies,  179. 
Jamas,  273. 
Jamudas,  236. 
Janeros,  69. 

Janos,  69,  73.  ' 

Japurin,  271. 
Jaruris,  264. 
Jauamerys,  252. 
Jauna,  240. 
Jaunavos,  292. 
Javahais,  262. 
Javis,  266. 
Jeberos,  280. 
Jemez,  117. 
Jicarillas,  73. 
Jinori,  279,  281. 
Jivaros,  208,  280,  282-4. 
Jonaz,  136. 
Jucunas,  249. 
Jumanas,  249. 
Jupua,  240. 
Jupurinas,  294. 
Juris,  249,  316. 


Kadjak  dialect,  60. 

Kalapooian,  108. 

Kansas,  98,  101. 

Karaikas,  331. 

Karifs,  162. 

Karina,  256. 

Kaskaskias,  80. 

Katamareiio,  320. 

Katchan,  109. 

Katun,  157. 

Kauvuyas,  133. 

Kawitschin,  108. 

Kayaks,  62. 

Kechuas,  43,  203,  sq.,  348. 

Kenais,  69,  73,  79. 

Kennekas,  332. 

Keras,  116,  117. 

Kikapoos,  80. 

Kioways,  101. 

Kiriri,  258,  349. 

Kissing,  238. 

Kitunahan,  108. 

Kizh,  123,  133. 

Klikatats,  108. 

Koggabas,  183,  189. 

Kolosch,  39,  49,  104,  108. 

Kuchins,  69,  71,  73. 

Kulanapan,  109. 

Kusan,  108. 

Kustenaus,  246,  249. 

Kutenay,  108. 

Kwakiutls,  47,  106,  108,  366. 

Lacandons,  153,  159,  161. 
L,agoa  Santa,  237. 
L,aguna,  117. 
Laianas,  244. 
L,ama,  the,  51. 
L,ama  stock,  285. 
L/amanos,  216. 
L,amas,  285. 


INDEX   OF  SUBJECTS. 


383 


Lambayeque,  206. 

Lamistas,  216,  285. 

Lamps,  238. 

Languages,  American,  55-57. 

Lecos,  298-9,  305. 

Lenapes,  47,  75,  76,  79,  80. 

Lencas,  149,  152,  160,  341. 

Lenguas,  316. 

Lican-antais,  226-7. 

Light-myths,  78. 

Lineal  measures,  51. 

Lingua  geral,  229,  349. 

Linguistic  stocks,  57. 

Lipans,  69,  73. 

Lipes,  227. 

Llameos,  285. 

Llanos,  the,  262. 

Llipis,   227. 

Lojanos,  284. 

Lolaca,  276. 

Loucheux,  73. 

Luculia,  276. 

Lucumbia,  279. 

Lules,  311,  316,  362. 

Lummi,  108. 

Lupaca  dialect,  218,  222. 

Lupacas,  217,  221. 

Lutuamian,  109. 

Macaguages,  273,  275. 
Macarani,  298,  305. 
Macas,  208. 
Macavinas,  282. 
Machacalis,  240. 
Machigangas,  243. 
Macos,  276. 
Macuchis,  252,  352. 
Macuenis,  268. 
Macunis,  240. 
Macusis,  251,  254,  258. 


Magdalenos,  598. 
Mages,  298. 
Maidu,  109,  216. 
Maiongkong,  254. 
Maipures,  247,  250,  264,  267. 
Malabas,  206. 
Malalalis,  239. 
Malalis,  239,  318. 
Malbalas,  310,  315. 
Mams,  153-8. 
Manacicas,  296. 
Mananaguas,  262. 
Manaos,  249. 
Manatanerys,  249. 
Mandauacas,  250. 
Mandans,  98-101. 
Mandingas,  173. 
Mangaches,  208. 
Mangues,  145. 
Manhattans,  80. 
Maniguies,  298. 
Manipos,  190. 
Manitenerys,  291. 
Manitivas,  268. 
Manitsauas,  236. 
Manivas,  249,  268. 
Manivis,  196-8. 
Manoas,  292. 
Mansinos,  298. 
Mantas,  207. 
Manzaneros,  324. 
Maopityans,  245. 
Mapuyas,  264. 
Maquiritares,  264,  265,  352. 
Maranhos,  249. 
Maratins,  94. 
Mariates,  249. 
Maribois,  160. 
Mariches,  180. 
Maricopas,  in,  113. 


384 


THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 


Mariposan,  109. 
Maritzis,  267. 
Maropas,  298,  299,  358. 
Marriage,  46,  47,  48. 
Martidanes,  317. 
Masacaras,  239. 
Masacas,  250. 
Massamaes,  285,  286. 
Massets,  108. 

Matacos,  313,  316,  326,  362. 
Matagalpan,  149,  342. 
Mataguayos,  310,  315. 
Matanos,  265. 
Mataras,  316. 
Matlatzincos,  136. 
Maues,  236. 
Mautas,  282. 
Mawakwas,  249,  254. 
Maxorunas,  292. 
Maya  stock,  140. 
Mayas,  ISS-^S,  34°. 
Maynas,  279,  284. 
Mayongcong,  267. 
Mayorunas,  289,  292. 
Mayos,  125,  134. 
Mazahuas,  136. 
Mazatecos,  142.  v 
M'Mats,  113. 
Mbayas,  315. 
Mbeguas,  236. 
Mbocobis,  309,  315. 
Mecos,  136. 
Medicine  men,  55. 
Meepure,  264. 
Mehinacus,  247. 
Melchoras,  163. 
Meliseets,  80. 
Menepes,  307. 
Meniens,  262. 
Menomonees,  80. 


Merigotos,  180. 
Mesayas,  200,  233. 
Mescaleros,  69,  74. 
Mexicans,  134. 
Meztitlantecas,  134. 
Miamis,  80. 
Michoacan,  137. 
Micmacs,  74,  80. 
Micos,  162. 
Miguries,  179. 
Milcocayac  dialect,  323. 
Minnetarees,  99. 
Minuanes,  317. 
Miquianos,  285. 
Mirripuyas,  180. 
Mitandues,  236. 
Mitla,  141. 
Mituas,  269. 
Mixes,  40,  143,  339. 
Mixtecs,  140,  sq.,  142,  339. 
Mochicas,  225,  348. 
Mocoas,  200. 
Mocochies,  179-180. 
Mocombos,  180. 
Mocotos,  1 80. 
Modocs,  109. 
Mogana  dialect,  321. 
Moguexes,  195,  347. 
Mohaves,  in,  113. 
Mohawks,  82. 
Mohegans,  74,  75,  80. 
Moluches,  323,  326. 
Mombunes,  179. 
Mongoloid  type,  37. 
Monoxos,  240. 
Montagnais,  74. 
Mopans,  159. 
Moquelumnian,  109. 
Moquis,  116,  120,  123,  133. 
Morcotes,  182,  189. 


INDEX   OF   SUBJECTS. 


385 


Morochucos,   216. 
Moronas,  282. 
Moroquenis,  269. 
Morotocos,  301. 
Morropas,  197. 
Moruas,  269. 
Mosetenas,  297-9,  360. 
Mosqueras,  196. 
Motilones,  178,  255,  258,  351. 
Mound-Builders,  88. 
Movimas,  303,  305,  360. 
Moxa  dialect,  305. 
Moxos,  232,  233,  247,  249,  295. 
Mozcas,  see  Muyscas. 
Muchanis,  298. 
Mucos,  265. 
Mucunchies,  179. 
Mucurabaes,  179. 
Mucurus,  264. 
Mucutuyes,  180. 
Mueganos,  282. 
Mummies,  54. 
Mundurucus,  231-236. 
Muniche,  279. 
Muois,  184,  189. 
Muras,  232,  236,  305. 
Muratos,  282,  284. 
Mure,  305,  306. 
Murendoes,  176. 
Murires,  184,  189. 
Muskokis,  85-89. 
Musimos,  287. 
Musos,  190,  191. 
Musquitos,  162,  341,  367. 
Mutsun,  109. 
Muyscas,  181,  189. 

Nachitoches,  97. 
Nagrandans,  159. 
Nahaunies,  69,  74. 
2S 


Nahuapos,  285. 

Nahuas,  118,  128,  sq.,  135. 

Nahuatl  language,  119,  152,  336. 

Namollos,  64. 

Nauegales,  208. 

Nani  waya,  85. 

Nanticokes,  75,  80. 

Napeanos,  285. 

Napos,  208. 

Napotoas,  282. 

Nasqua,  108. 

Natacos,  97. 

Natchez,  90. 

Natixana  dialect,  321. 

Nauras,  190. 

Navajos,  69,  71,  72,  74,  115,  117, 

247. 

Nayerits,  126. 
Necodades,  176. 
Nepas,  282. 
Nerecamues,  282. 
Nescoyas,  282. 
Netela,  123,  133. 
Neutral  nation,  81. 
Nevomes,  125. 
Newfoundland  Indians,  67. 
Nez  Perec's,  107,  108. 
Niagara  river,  26,  31. 
Nicaragua,  24,  145. 
Nicaraos,  128,  134. 
Niquirans,   134. 
Nnehengatus,  266. 
Noanamas,  176,  344. 
Nozi,  109. 
Nushinis,  282. 
Nutabes,  193. 
Nutka,  108,  366. 

Oas,  282. 
Oaxaca,  140,  144. 


386 


THE   AMERICAN    RACE. 


Ochozomas,  221. 

Ocoles,  316. 

Ocorona,  305,  306. 

Ogallalas,  101. 

Ojes,  264. 

Ojibways,  75. 

Olipes,  227. 

Olmecan,  144. 

Oluta,  151. 

Omagua  dialect,  286,  355. 

Omaguas,  233-6,  269,  280, 

Omahas,  98,  101. 

Omapachas,  216. 

Onas,  329,  331. 

Oneidas,  82. 

Onotes,  177. 

Opatas,  125,  134,  337. 

Opelousas,  99. 

Opone,  252,  353. 

Orejones,  94,  288. 

Orinoco  basin,  262. 

stocks,  264,  553 
Oristines,  312,  316. 
Oromos,  298. 
Orotinans,  146. 
Osages,  98,  101. 
Os  incae,  38. 
Otomacos,  264,  269,  354. 
Otomis,  135,  338. 
Otuquis,  304. 
Ottawas,  74,  80. 
Ottoes,  101. 
Ouaye'oue*,  257. 
Oyampis,  236.         • 

Pacaguaras,  290,  292,  298. 
Pacajus,  236. 
Pacaos,  94. 
Pacasas,  217-221. 
Pacavaras,  290. 


Pacajas,  286. 
Paezes,  189,  sq. 
Pacimonarias,  250. 
Paiconecas,  167,  244,  249. 
Paiuras,  264. 
Pakawas,  94. 
Palaeoliths,  27,  33,  365. 
Palaihnihan,  108. 
Palenque,  153,  155. 
Palenques,  252,  264. 
Palmellas,  251,  258,  295. 
Palomos,  316. 
Pamas,  292. 
Pames,  129,  136. 
Pammarys,   292,  sq. 
Pampas,  the,  321. 
Pampticokes,  75,  80. 
Pana,  279,  280. 
Panajoris,  282. 
Panares,  265. 
Pancas,  239. 
Panches,  190,  191. 
Panhames,  240. 
Pani  stock,  95. 
Paniquitas,  189,  sq.,  346. 
Panos,  289,  sq.,  356. 
Pantagoros,  190,  191. 
Pantasmas,  163. 
Paos,  269. 
Papabucos,  142. 
Papamiento,  253. 
Paparos,  176. 
Papayos,  134. 
Paramonas,  258. 
Paranapuras,  282. 
Paravilhanas,  258. 
Parecas,  265. 
Parenes,  269. 
Pareni,  249. 
Paretintims,  236. 


INDEX   OF  SUBJECTS. 


387 


Farias,  252. 
Paris,  231. 
Parisis,  249. 
Parranos,  285. 
Parrastahs,  163. 
Pascagoulas,  99. 
Passamaquoddies,  80. 
Passes,  249. 
Pastazas,  282. 
Patachos,  240. 
Patagonians,  327,  364. 
Patias,  200,  201. 
Patoes,  176. 
Paudacotos,  265. 
Paunacas,  244. 
Pautis,  284. 
Pa-vants,  133. 
Pavos,  282. 
Pawnees,  95,  sq. 
Payaguas,  314,  316,  361. 
Payas,   163. 
Pebas,  286,  353. 
Pehuenches,  326. 
Penoquies,  296. 
Pericus,  112,  113. 
Peruvians,  38. 
Pescherees,  331. 
Peten,  lake,  153. 
Phratries,  46. 
Pianagotos,  258. 
Piankishaws,  80. 
Pianochotto,  254. 
Piapocos,  269,  350. 
Piaroas,  264,  266,  354. 
Pictography,  62. 
Piegans,  79,  80. 
Pijaos,  190,  191. 
Pilcosumis,  243. 
Pimas,  117,  123,  sq.,  134,  336. 
Pindis,  282. 


Pinocos,  296. 
Piojes,  273,  274. 
Pipiles,  128,  134,  160. 
Pira,  279. 
Pirindas,  136. 
Piros,  117,  245,  249,  294. 
Pitilagas,  315. 
Pituranas,  236. 
Pi-utes,  134. 
Poignavis,  278. 
Pokomams,  159. 
Pokonchis,  159. 
Polindaras,  196. 
Porno,   109. 
Poncas,  98,  lor. 
Popolocas,  146,  sq. 
Popol  Vuh,  158. 
Potes,  239. 
Poton,  239. 
Pottawattomies,  80. 
Potureros,  301. 
Poyas,  329. 
Pubenanos,  195. 
Pueblo  Indians,  113-117. 
Pueblos,  47. 
Puelches,  323,  326. 
Puinahuas,  289. 
Puinavis,  278,  356. 
Pujunan,  109. 
Pukapakaris,  298. 
Puquinas,  221,  sq. 
Purigotos,  252,  258. 
Puris,  239,  259. 
Puru-purus,  292-3. 
Purus,  292,  294. 
Pustuzos,  200. 
Putumayos,  282. 

Quacas,  252. 
Quaisla,  108. 


388 


THE   AMERICAN    RACE. 


Quapaws,  98,  101. 
Quaquaras,  264,  269. 
Quaquas,  264,  266. 
Quechkis,  159. 
Querandies,  323,  326. 
Queres,  117. 
Quevacus,  267. 
Quiches,  153-8. 
Quilifay,  273,  276. 
Quillaguas,  221. 
Quilmes,  320. 

Quinequinaux,  244,  311,  315. 
Quinos,  1 80. 
Quiri-quiripas,  264,  265. 
Quirivinas,  282. 
Quiroraes,  180. 
Quitus,  207,  216. 
Quivas,  265. 
Quoratean,  109. 

Ramas,  163,  366. 
Ranqueles,  323,  326. 
Red  Indians,  67. 
Remos,  292. 
Reyes,  329. 
Rio  Verdes,  176. 
Roamainas,  285. 
Rocorona,  306. 
Rotoronos,  306. 
Rotunos,  282. 

Roucouyennes,  253,  258,  352. 
Rucanas,  216. 
Rurok,  109. 
Ryo-ba,  141. 

Sabaguis,  124,  134. 
Sabuyas,  259. 
Sacchas,   196-8. 
Sacs  and  Foxes,  80. 
Sahaptins,  107,  108. 


Salinan,  109. 

Salish,  106,  107,  108. 

Salivas,  264,  266,  353. 

Sanibaquis,  236. 

Sambos,  177,  344. 

Sarnie,  108. 

Samucus,  300,  sq.,  359,  363. 

Sanavirona  dialect,  321. 

San  Bias  Indians,  173. 

Sapiboconas,  298,  299,  358. 

Saravecas,  167,  244,  249. 

Sarcees,  69,  71,  72,  74. 

Sarigues,  314,  316. 

Saskatchewan,  R.,  69. 

Sastean,  109. 

Satienos,  301. 

Sauteux,  80. 

Scyra  dialect,  206. 

Sebondoyes,  200,  201. 

Sechuras,  226. 

Secoffies,  80. 

Seguas,  128,  134. 

Semigaes,  282. 

Seminoles,  86-89. 

Sencis,  292. 

Senecas,  82. 

Sepaunabos,  243. 

Sens,  1 10,  113,  127,  335. 

Setibos,  222. 

Shasta,  109. 

Shawnees,  75,  80. 

Shiripunas,  282. 

Shoshonees,  116,  118,  120,  134. 

Sicaunies,  74. 

Simigae,  279,  280. 

Simirenchis,  245,  249. 

Sinipis,  313,  316. 

Sinsigas,  189. 

Sioux,  98. 

Sipibos,  292. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


389 


Siquias,  163. 
Sirineris,  298. 
Siquisiques,  183. 
Sirionos,  236. 
Sisikas,  79. 
Situfas,  273,  276. 
Six  Nations,  81. 
'-idegates,  106,  108. 
Ume  Indians,  71,  74. 
Uyajs,  162. 
Snak-,  s,  120,  122. 
Sobaypuris,  124. 
Soerigong,  254. 
Solostos,  298. 
Soltecos,  142. 
Subironas,   163. 
Subtiabas,  159,  342. 
Sun  worship,  72. 
Susquehannocks,  81. 
Suyas,  239. 

Tabalosos,  282. 

Tabayones,  179. 

Tacanas,  297-299,  303,  304,  358. 

Tados,  177,  344. 

Taensas,  90. 

Tahamies,   193. 

Tainos,  249. 

Takanikas,  332. 

Takilman,  108. 

Takullies,  69,  70,  74. 

Talamancas,  164,  183-189,  346. 

Tamanacas,  258,  264,  265,  351. 

Tamanos,  320. 

Tamas,  273,  274. 

Tamayos,  236. 

Tanos,  117. 

Taos,  117,  296. 

Tapacuras,  303. 

Tapaunas,  236. 


Taparros,  179,  180. 

Tapes,  231,  236. 

Tapijulapanes,  144. 

Tapios,  301. 

Tapirapes,  236. 

Tapuyas,  38,  236,   259,   262,    266, 

3i8,  324,  328,  332,  349,  357. 
Tarahumaras,  125,  134,  336. 
Tarapita,  264,  269. 
Tarascos,  136,  sq.,  338. 
Tarianas,  250,  266. 
Tarumas,  245-250. 
Tatche,  109. 
Tatuyes,  179. 
Tauri,  245. 
Tauaconies,  97. 
Tayronas,  182,  183,  189. 
Tayunis,  314,  316. 
T'ho,  155. 

Tecamachcalco.  150. 
Tecoripas,  134. 
Tecos,  128,  151. 
Tecunas,  287. 
Tehuas,  116,  117. 
Tehuecos,  125,  134. 
Tehuel-che,  327,  364. 
Telame,  109. 
Telembis,  196-9. 
Teluskies,  175. 
Tenez,  145. 
Tenochtitlan,  128. 
Teotihuacan,  139. 
Tepeaca,  151. 
Tepehuanas,  126,  134,  337. 
Tepuzcolola,  151. 
Tequistlatecas,  112,  148. 
Terenos,  244,  310,  315. 
Terrabas,  189. 
Tetons,  101. 
Teutas,  314,  316. 


39° 


THE   AMERICAN   RACE. 


Teutecas,  145. 
Texas,  97. 
Tezcucans,  43,  128. 
Tiahuanuco,  219. 
Ticunas,  287,  357. 
Tiguinos,  179. 
Timotes,  178,  179,  346. 
Timucuas,  90. 
Tinne",  68,  74,  no. 
Tiputinis,  282. 
Tirribis,  189. 
Tirripis,  178. 
Tiverighotto,  254,  258. 
Tivilos,  282. 
Tlacopan,  128. 
Tlapanecos,  151. 
Tlascaltecs,  128,  134. 
Tlinkit,  104,  108. 
Tobas,  309,  315,  361. 
Tobosos,  69. 
Toltecs,  129. 
Tonicas,  91. 
Tonicotes,  311,  316. 
Tonkaways,  92. 
Tontos,  in,  113. 
Toquistines,  312,  316. 
Toromonas,  288. 
Totems,  45,  78. 
Totonacos,  139,  338. 
Totoros,  195,  347. 
Tonachies,  97. 
Tremajoris,  282. 
Tricaguas,  180. 
Trios,  258. 
Triquis,  148. 
Tshimshians,  106,  108. 
Tsoneca,  364. 
Tuapocos,  265. 
Tubares,   126. 
Tucanos,  240,  266,  357. 


Tucas,  206. 

Tucunas,  287. 

Tucupis,  298. 

Tucuras,  176,  177,  343. 

Tucurriques,  189. 

Tucutis,  173. 

Tula,  129. 

Tules,  173. 

Tumupasas,   298. 

Tunebos,  182,  189,  273. 

Tunglas,  162. 

Tupi-Guarani,  257. 

Tupis,  229-236,  286,  307,  308,  349. 

Turas,  232,  236. 

Turbacos,  178. 

Tuscaroras,  81,  82. 

Tuski,  65. 

Tuteloes,  98. 

Tzutuhils,  159. 

Tututenas,  69,  71,  14. 

Tuyumiris,  298. 

Twakas,  163. 

Tzendals,  149,  153-8. 

Tze-tinne,  115,  124. 

Tzintzuntan,   137. 

Tzonteca,  327. 

Tzotzils,  153-8. 

Uainambeus,  250. 
Uainumas,  250. 
Uambisas,  284. 
Uarunas,  287. 
Uaupes,  240,  269. 
Uchees,  see  Yuchis. 
Ugaronos,  301. 
Uirinas,  250. 
Ulvas,  150,  161-163,  341. 
Unalashkan,  66. 
Unangan,  66. 
Uraba,  Gulf,  173. 


INDEX   OF   SUBJECTS. 


391 


Urarina,  279,  280. 

Urus,  221. 

Uspantecas,  159. 

Utelaes,  187. 

Utes,  118,  120,  sq.,  134,  336. 

Utlateca,  159. 

Uto-Aztecan  stock,  44,  118,  sq., 

336. 

Umpquas,  69,  71,  74. 
Uyapas,  236. 

Vaiyamaras,  258. 
Valientes,  164,  182,  189. 
Varinas,  287. 
Varogios,  127. 
Varrigones,  252. 
Vauras,  247. 
Vayamanos,  265. 
Vejosos,  316. 
Vilelas,  313,  316,  362. 
Viracocha,  214. 
Voyavois,  258. 
Vuatos,  318. 

Waimiris,  252. 

Waiyamaras,  257,  see  Vayamara, 

Wakash,   108. 

Wallawallas,  108. 

Walum  Olum,  the,  78. 

Wapisianas,  245,  250. 

Warraus,  271,  354- 

Wayilaptu,  108. 

Weas,  80. 

Weitspekan,  109. 

West  Indians,  250. 

Wichitas,  95. 

Wihinashts,  134. 

Winnebagoes,  98-101. 

Wintuns,  109. 

Wishokan,  109. 


Woolwas,  163. 

Woyawoi,  254,  see  Voyavoi. 

Wyandots,  83. 

Xeberos,  280. 
Xibitos,  288. 
Xicaques,  161,  341. 
Ximbioas,  262. 
Xincas,  160,  342. 
Xivaros,  282. 
Xolotes,  316. 

Vacates,  137. 
Yaguas,  286,  293,  353. 
Yahgans,  329,  332,  364. 
Yahua,  see  Yaguas. 
Yakama,  108. 
Yakanna-cunni,  329. 
Yakonan,  108. 
Yamacies,  193. 
Yamassees,  89. 
Yameos,  279,  285. 
Yanan,  109. 
Yanktons,  101. 
Yaos,  258,  265. 
Yapitlaguas,  310,  315. 
Yapoos,  329-332. 
Yaquis,  125,  134. 
Yaros,  317. 
Yarrapos,  285. 
Yarura  language,  275,  355. 
Yaruras,  264,  271. 
Yasunis,  282. 
Yatasses,  97. 
Yauyos,  216. 
Yavapais,  no,  113. 
Yaviteris,  269. 
Yeguas,  286. 
Yegueyos,  282. 


392 


THE  AMERICAN    RACE. 


Yetes,  282. 

Yocunos,  265. 

Yoes,  316. 

Yokuts,  109. 

Yopes,  151. 

Yuchis,  89. 

Yuits,  64. 

Yukian,  109. 

Yumas,  38,  49,  109,  sq.,  148,  335. 

Yumbos,  208,  303. 

Yunca-cuna,  225. 

Yuncas,  224,  sq.,  348. 

Yuris,  250. 

Yurunas,  236. 


Yurucares,  39,  297-299. 


Zamoros,   282,  284. 

Zamucas,  300. 

Zaparas,  180. 

Zaparos,  208,  279,  280,  sq. 

Zapotecs,  43,  64,  140  sq.,  339. 

Zaribas,  187. 

Zoques,  143  sq.,  339. 

Zuaques,  125. 

Zunes,  187. 

Zunis,  116,  117. 

Zurumutas,  258. 


3  1158  00143  9172 


AA      000160439    6 


